OT Midterm Terms Summary PDF

Chapter 1 Term Definition paradigm set of assumptions and values that shapes how we see and interact with the world management the process of communicating, coordinating and accomplishing action in the pursuit of organizationa...

Chapter 1 Term Definition paradigm set of assumptions and values that shapes how we see and interact with the world management the process of communicating, coordinating and accomplishing action in the pursuit of organizational objectives. Sensemaking process where individuals/groups give meaning to smth based on 1. tradition 2. legitimacy of rational sensemaking shared by the use of storytelling as a social activity Weick(2008): 1. Ongoing: We are always interpreting things, even in dreams, and our understanding changes with new experiences. 2. Retrospective: We look back at events as they happen to update our understanding. 3. Plausible: We don't need perfect answers; just good enough to keep going, especially in fast-changing situations. 4. Images: We use models or ideas from past knowledge to make sense of new situations. 5. Rationalize: We simplify and explain confusing things to make them clear. 6. People: Even with technology, it’s humans who interpret and give meaning to situations. 7. Doing: We understand goals through actions, realizing they might differ for each person based on how they interpret events. sensebreaking challenging/disrupting existing beliefs, assumptions/routines to create awareness of a problem/to highlight a need for change sensegiving process of providing a new meaning/framework to help others understand+make sense of changes/new  circumstances framing presenting info/an issue in a specific way that influences how people perceive/interpret it managerialism Managerialism is the belief that organizations and societies work best when managed like businesses. It focuses on efficiency, control, and achieving goals through strong leadership and systems. managers claim to be the best at the decision, denying legitimacy to other forms of knowledge ideology set of beliefs, values and ideas that shape how people see and interact with the world, often influencing politics, culture, and social norms economic rationalism market and prices are the only reliable system that shows whether an organization is doing well or not, whereas states and bureaucracies aren’t. Focuses on profit making. Bureaucracies Bureaucracies are organized systems with clear rules, roles, and structures to manage tasks efficiently. capital money/asset 1. financial capital=money 2. symbolic capital=reputation 3. social capital=whom u know and how u are known rather than what u own metaphor figure of speech to compare two things that arent alike but appear to have smth in common bounded rationality The idea that people make decisions based on limited information and cognitive constraints, leading to "good enough" solutions rather than perfect ones resistance to change organizational activities/attitudes that try to resist change initiatives digitalization use of digital technologies and data to manage organizational processes organizations are tools: purpose, goal-oriented instruments designed to achieve a specific  object tacit knowledge Knowledge that is personal, experience-based, and difficult to express or formalize, such as skills or intuition. →e.g.Riding a bicycle: Once learned, it becomes second nature, and explaining exactly how to balance and pedal is difficult. explicit knowledge Knowledge that is easily communicated, documented, and shared, such as written instructions or manuals. gig economy short-term/freelance work rather than permanent jobs like uber drivers e.g. holacracy A management system that distributes authority and decision-making through self-organizing teams rather than a traditional hierarchy →decisions are made collaboratively within teams with no job titles/traditional managers digital nomads people who work remotely through technology+traveling from place to place rather than staying in 1 location diversity seen as an asset for organizations: people with diverse experiences can contribute more varied insights, knowledge and experiences than a homogeneous workplace CSR corporate social responsibility →Gen z that has strong green values hard vs soft power Hard power:the use of force, coercion, or economic influence by a country to achieve its goals, such as through military action or economic sanctions soft power: the ability to shape others' preferences and influence through appeal, attraction, and diplomacy rather than coercion or force →Peter and Waterman 1982: Improving productivity and quality happens when a company’s culture consistently encourages employees to work towards the organization’s main goals. This means creating a workplace where people’s actions and values align with what the company is trying to achieve. EDI equity, diversity, inclusivity  New public management (NPM) a way of managing public sector organizations that borrows ideas from private businesses. The goal is to make government services more efficient, cost-effective, and focused on results, similar to how companies aim to satisfy customers and maximize profits. e.g.: A government might use NPM by outsourcing waste collection to private companies, encouraging competition to reduce costs and improve service quality. This is different from the traditional approach where the government manages all services directly chapter 7 mintzberg’s political game: hoarding lording empire building counter-insurgency Chapter 2 Term Definition Psychology study of the human mind and behaviour Two themes: 1. nature-versus-nurture debate: what shapes a person more, nature (genetics/biological traits) or nurture (environment and experiences that influence u). 2. the idea of tabula rasa: we begin with a clean state. Our personality is socially constructed/nurtured as we learn to manage ourselves and become what we want to be. Organizational behaviour (OB) the study of how people interact within groups in a workplace. It focuses on understanding and managing employee behavior, motivation, teamwork, leadership, and company culture to improve productivity and employee satisfaction Competition 1. Charles Darwin: survival of the fittest 2. Adam Smith: progress and economic growth occur because  human behavior is based on self-interest. This happens best when people can freely buy and sell goods and services in open markets without restrictions. It focuses on self-interest and the pursuit of economic wealth as the only purpose of human activity. 3. selfish gene perspective: we are programmed for competition in an essential struggle to eternalize our genes over those of others. 4. Nicholson (2000): competition is genetically a human inclination. perception how we see, understand, or interpret things around us based on our senses, experiences, and beliefs personal schemes the mental frameworks or knowledge structures we have about ourselves, including our personality traits, abilities, and behavior patterns Example: If someone views themselves as a highly organized person, this personal schema influences how they approach work, plan their day, and react to clutter or disorganization self-schemas specific beliefs/ideas about oneself that guide how a person processes self-related information and reacts in different situations e.g.: Someone who sees themselves as athletic will think about their abilities in sports, plan time for exercise, and feel confident in physical activities. script schemas These guide our understanding of how events typically unfold in certain situations. → how we operate in our world and understand+remember info. Scripts are developed from social schemas or role schemas. e.g. At a restaurant, your script schema tells you to wait to be seated, look at the menu, order food, eat, and then pay. social schemas our social knowledge. These shape how we perceive and interact with others, often based on stereotypes or expectations.  e.g.: Meeting a teacher, you might expect them to be knowledgeable, organized, and strict, even before you get to know them. role schemas schemas about appropriate and inappropriate behaviour in specific contexts. These define expectations for how people in specific roles should behave. e.g.:A doctor is expected to be caring, knowledgeable, and professional during patient interactions. stereotyping process of grouping objects into simplistic categories based on one’s generalized perceptions of those objects self-fulfilling prophecy a persons belief/expections lead them to behave/act as if they are true. Affects how we perceive ourselves and others, how we interact with them and ourselves. halo effect (Thorndike 1920) and devil effect if we ascribe certain (positive) characteristics to a person in one situation based on one trait, we tend to apply those (positive) characteristics to that person in other situations and to other traits. Involves a bias in judgement that affects behaviour. opposite: devil effect: based on negative characteristics. attribution theory is the idea that we try to understand the causes of people's behavior by either blaming it on their personality (internal causes) or their situation (external causes) example: If a coworker is late to a meeting, you might think it’s because they are disorganized (internal) or because there was heavy traffic (external). dispositional attribution is when we blame someone's behavior on their personality or character rather than the situation they are in. example: If someone cuts in line, you might think they are rude or selfish (dispositional) rather than considering they might be in a rush (situational). 3 errors in attribution: 1. fundamental attribution error when we blame someone's behavior on  their personality rather than considering the situation. 2. self-serving bias when we attribute our successes to our own abilities but blame our failures on external factors. 3. cognitive dissonance the discomfort we feel when our actions conflict with our beliefs, so we try to change one to make them match. example: If you believe in healthy eating but eat junk food, you might justify it by saying, "It's okay because I’ve been eating healthy all week Daniel Kahneman (2011)two systems of the - system 1: stuff u already know brain: system 1 and 2 quick to process things, intuitive and prone to bias - system 2: stuff u would need instructions/learning for methodical, effortful, largely rational, lazy, will take short cuts ex ante (Gigerenzer 2007) making decisions or predictions before an event happens, based on available information or expectations. values beliefs/standars that guide how people think, feel, behave Schwartz: desirable goals, varying in importance, serving as guiding principles in people’s lifes. For managers: Although values can be confusing and controversial, values can be changed through interventions value priorities order of values in terms of their importance to us as individuals trans-situational values that remains consistent across different situations/contexts The values u have do not easily change irrespective of the situation. personality the combination of characteristics, behaviors, and emotional patterns that make up a person’s unique identity and how they typically respond to the world. traits are consistent and stable aspects of  personality that influence behavior across time and situations factor analysis (Allport and Odbert 1936) 1. Emotional stability: whether a big 5 personality factors: EEOAC person is calm vs anxious 1. Emotional stability - self-satisfied vs self-pitying, secure 2. Extraversion vs insecure, emotionally stable vs 3. Openness emotionally unstable. 4. Agreeableness 5. Conscientiousness 2. extraversion: whether a person is - sociable vs reserved or assertive vs timid. - Being outgoing, energetic, and sociable 3. openness: refers to a person's approach to life - independent vs conforming, broad-minded vs narrow-minded, creative vs practical. - Willingness to try new things, be creative, and open to new ideas 4. agreeableness:how people get along with others - warm-hearted vs ruthless, trusting vs distrusting, helpful vs uncooperative - Being kind, empathetic, and cooperative 5. conscientiousness: refers to high vs low tolerance for risk - well organized vs disorganized, well-disciplined vs impulsive - being organized, responsible, and reliable socio-cognitive approach seeks to explain how learning, social behaviour, and understanding (cognition) form and shape our personality. reciprocal determinism means that our personality is a product of our behaviour, thoughts and feelings in interaction with our environment (Bandura 1989) theory of locus of control (Rotter 1966) - includes concepts such as internal vs external attributions and attribution errors. - how people behave in organizations and how well they cope with uncertainty and change  - High internal locus of control: better able to deal with uncertain and stressful work conditions - external locus of control: more likely to suffer from stress and anxiety - internal locus people: more likely to feel ingrained (attached) within their organization - external people: more likely to move because they are much more influenced by external forces Locus of control can be changed through cognitive behavioral training, meaning it is something we learn and develop through our experiences over time. humanist approach humanist=non-religious but naturalistic approach to understanding human behaviour: being ethical, human-centred, self-furfilling and self-actualizing. - aim to ensure that humans fully realize personal growth and potential in their entirety. Maslow and Rogers: notion of how we express our self-concept: self-concept=our thoughts and feelings about ourselves. self-actualization desire to maximize our full potential of what we believe we could be Rogers 3 basic conditions enabling growth people must be… to positive self-image 1. genuine, honest, open about their own feelings 2. accepting in valuing themselves and others 3. empathic They… 1. have peak experiences 6 things that explains a self-actualizing 2. have a high level of sociability, individual social responsibility, accountability 3. are accepting of themselves+others 4. are realist 5. display high level of agency 6. place great emphasis on the journey rather than destination (still mindful of their goal tho) Types of managers: 1. humanist manager: will seek to develop and foster their own and their employee's ability to move  towards self-actualization (=desire to maximize our full potential of what we believe we could be). 2. socio-cognitivist-orientated manager: will be mindful of the types of people that exist in organizations. 3. trait-oriented manager: will be mindful of the sorts of traits that are necessary in managing people/are best in certain customer interactions/for certain tasks and roles. Positive psychology (PP) field of psychology focused on the study and promotion of positive aspects of human life, such as happiness, well-being, and personal strengths. Emotions strong feelings triggered by events or situations, which influence our thoughts, behaviors, and physiology Emotional intelligence the ability to recognize, understand, manage, and use emotions effectively in oneself and in interactions with others moods less intense but longer-lasting emotional states compared to emotions, often without a specific triggering event happiness state of well-being and contentment, often characterized by positive emotions like joy and fulfillment life chances and life results life chances: the opportunities people have based on factors like social class, background, and access to resources life results: actual outcomes of a persons life, such as career success/health outer and inner qualities Outer qualities: traits and characteristics visible to others, like physical appearance or public behaviors Inner qualities: persons internal values, character, emotions Veenhoven 2004 4 qualities of life: affective forecasting the process of predicting how you will feel in the future about a certain event or decision impact bias the tendency to overestimate the intensity  and duration of our future emotional reactions to events causes/source of impact bias: the psychological tendency to focus heavily 1. focalism on one piece of information or one aspect of an event, while neglecting other important factors that might influence outcomes or experiences. 2. failure to anticipate how quickly we will make sense of things that happen to us in a way that speeds up emotional recovery Chapter 7 Term Definition Organizational politics the networks between people in and around organizations that entail power relations. involves shaping the agenda, getting some issues onto it, making sure that they remain there and keeping other issues off Power the ability to influence or control others, decisions, or outcomes - Power relationships are shown through signs of authority, like official rules, policies, and positions, as well as through behaviors, dress, attitudes, and expectations that go beyond formal authority - Max Weber (1978): power is a pervasive aspect of organizational life. Authority the chance of specific commands being obeyed by a specifiable group of people - where authority is present, the assumption is that power relations are absent. - power is present, authority is absent Bureaucracy A system of formal rules is important because it limits the space for the official and public from the personal and the private. Legitimacy When there is a widespread belief that something is just and valid. The legitimacy of authority is often contrasted with the illegitimacy of power. - power=illegitimate action - authority=legitimate action  Pettigrew 2002: management of meaning: How legitimation is achieved; seeks to create legitimacy for one's initiatives and delegitimize those it opposes. Resistance Attempt to challenge, change or retain existing societal relations organizational legitimacy refers to the belief that a company or organization is doing the right things in the right way, and is accepted by society, its stakeholders, or the public. example: A company that follows environmental laws and treats employees well has organizational legitimacy because it is seen as responsible and trustworthy Strategic contingencies theory suggests that power in an organization depends on how critical a group’s activities are to the organization’s success. Groups that can handle key problems or uncertainties, or have important expertise, gain more power. Resources dependency view focuses on how managers in organizations secure the flow of resources essential for organizational survival. Pfeffer and Salancik (2002) explain that in organizations, power is used to influence decisions about how resources (like materials, money, information, and authority) are distributed. Organizations depend on other groups for these resources and try not to depend too much on any one source. To manage these resource needs, organizations either adapt by changing their strategies or operations, or they try to dominate by controlling their environment. Power is a positive-sum game, meaning those with more resources can gain even more power by attracting additional resources. There's also a zero-sum view of power, which means that if one organization gains power, another loses it. Example: A company with access to key suppliers or information can use that advantage to gain more power over others, making it harder for other  companies to compete. Power steering Uses skills to influence decisions, agendas and participation in organisational politics →refers to the tactics or strategies used by individuals or groups within an organization to influence decisions, control resources, or shape outcomes in their favor Pettigrew 2002 organizational politics arise 1. Management of meaning: People try to from: promote their ideas and values while rejecting others, using language and beliefs organizational politics=the use of power, to shape the organization’s culture. influence, and tactics within an organization 2. Structural divisions: Differences in roles, to achieve personal or group goals, often at like between creative teams and the expense of others or the organization’s accountants, create conflicts and political overall objectives. struggles. 3. Uncertainty and dilemmas: Issues that are MSUEH important and uncertain give more power to those who can solve them, especially if top management cares about them. 4. External pressures: When outside stakeholders push for change, those who can act on it gain more power. 5. History of past politics: Previous struggles and decisions shape current power dynamics in the organization. Mintzberg 1985 commonly occurring political games: soft domination when power is exercised in a subtle, indirect way to influence people. Instead of forcing someone, it shapes their behavior by making them think they are acting freely while aligning with organizational goals.  example: A company promotes a "fun workplace culture" to encourage employees to stay late or work harder voluntarily, even though it benefits the company more than the employee. what sustains senior management and limits organizational members: political concentrated power of control combined with credible sticks (formal rules) and carrots (performance-related pay). Foucaults waves of influence on power: 1. Discipline and Punish (1977): Foucault looked at how organizations use discipline, DDGA surveillance, and control to manage people’s behavior. 2. Discourse (1981): He explored how language and beliefs shape how we see and act in the world. 3. Governmentality: Foucault studied how governments and organizations use different methods to control and influence people. 4. Asceticism and Techniques of the Self: He examined how individuals shape their own identity and behavior through personal discipline and self-control. Foucault's ideas have influenced how we understand power in organizations in four main ways: 1. Surveillance:Power in organizations often relies on watching and monitoring employees, especially through digital tools. 2. Discourse: People learn to speak the company’s language, align with its goals, and share its vision, making power less visible because employees willingly follow management’s expectations. 3. Governmentality: This idea combines governance (control) and mentality (mindset), where people govern themselves through consent and self-policing, rather than being forced into control. 4. Subjectification: Employees internalize the organization’s values and behaviors, becoming self-disciplined. The organization influences employees to adopt its goals as their own, creating a form of subtle power where employees willingly work toward the company’s objectives. Dialectics the idea that change happens through the conflict of opposing forces or ideas. These contradictions or tensions eventually lead to a new understanding or resolution  example: In a debate, two opposing viewpoints clash, and through discussion, a new idea might emerge that combines elements of both. two types of resistance in contemporary 1. Collective, digital resistance: This is times: organized through social media and focuses aka two types of resistance today: on big events like global business meetings. It's often dramatic and public, like protests or flash mobs, and can include both peaceful and violent actions. An example is the Anonymous group using V for Vendetta masks. 2. Individual, everyday resistance: This is more personal and less organized, often happening within organizations. It's shown through behaviors like sarcasm, humor, or ignoring authority. An example is the #MeToo movement, which started with a few individuals speaking out about sexual harassment and grew into a global movement. Information panopticon devices that keep an eye on everyone at all times like CCTV and security cameras Teams operate with 2 dimensions of 1. Vertical surveillance: Focuses on spotting surveillance: behaviors that don't meet expected standards, like wasting time or not producing enough quality work. This is often done using performance data to highlight what's normal, and anything that deviates from it stands out. Electronic monitoring helps make these standards clear. 2. Horizontal surveillance: Involves team members watching and reviewing each other's work. It encourages peer monitoring, where everyone helps keep an eye on others' performance. Total institutions places that are in constant surveillance characterized by: 1. Immediate presence: Members live closely with others, always visible, with no privacy. Example: Prison inmates are constantly around each other. 2. Surveillance: Members are monitored, so their actions are always seen. Example: Cameras in a factory or supervisors in a school. 3. Strictly regimented: Daily routines are highly controlled and planned by the  institution. Example: School bells or factory schedules dictate activities. 4. Institutional clothing: Members wear uniforms or specific attire, reducing individuality. Example: Soldiers in barracks wear standard military uniforms. 5. Strict, formal, rational planning of time: Members have their schedules dictated, leaving no personal choice in how to spend their time. Example: Bugle calls in the military or shift timetables in factories. 6. Authoritative interpretation of rules: Members must strictly conform to the institution’s rules, losing autonomy. Example: Prisons require total obedience to regulations. Milgram 1971 situational obligations showed that people often obey authority figures, even when asked to do something against their personal values, because they feel a strong obligation to follow orders in certain situations. This happens because the situation creates a sense of duty or responsibility to comply. →In his famous experiment, participants were instructed to deliver electric shocks to others by an authority figure (the experimenter). Many obeyed, even when they believed the shocks were harmful because they felt obligated to follow the experimenter's commands. empowerment means giving people the authority, resources, and confidence to make decisions and take actions on their own, increasing their sense of control and responsibility. Concertive control - horizontal mode of surveillance - occurs when the sense of responsibility to the members of the team impels you to work intensively and not let them down - occurs when organizations become post-bureaucratic 4 sources of emancipation: 1. ‘New age’ management literature: Focuses on themes like self-discovery, freedom, and rebellion (Fleming, 2009). 2. Critical Management Studies: Concerned with freeing employees from unnecessarily alienating forms of work organization (Alvesson and Willmott, 1992).  3. Social movements: Organize for emancipation and challenge oppressive practices (Zanoni and Janssens, 2007). 4. Entrepreneurs: Strive for autonomy to escape the drudgery of being under control (Goss et al., 2011; Rindova et al., 2009). how managers should use power ethically: 1. Decide your goals: Set goals in consultation with your organization’s key stakeholders. 2. Diagnose dependence: Identify who inside and outside the organization is influential for achieving these goals. 3. Understand viewpoints: Consider how these important people might feel about your plans. 4. Analyze power bases: Determine who holds the most influence in decision-making. 5. Assess your power: Identify your own sources of influence and how you can strengthen them. 6. Choose strategies: Pick the most suitable and effective tactics for exercising power in the situation. 7. Act ethically: Use these steps to choose an ethical way to achieve your goals. The rational model of decision-making: 1. the problem is defined 2. all the relevant info that leads to an optimal solution is collected. 3. reviewing the data. Management makes a decision regarding the optimal solution 4. this solution is implemented in a top-down approach and evaluated constantly by management a decision is seen as a rational choice based on a logical connection between cause and effect Bounded rationality means people make decisions with limited information, time, and mental ability. Instead of finding the perfect solution, they settle for one that is "good enough" because of these constraints. →decision-making limits (Simon 1960) Two types of decisions that 1. programmed decisions:These are routine managers deal with: and can be solved using existing rules or procedures. They are easy and can be handled by subordinates. Example: A manager approving a standard leave request. Since the procedure for granting leave is well-defined, the decision can be made easily by a subordinate based  on existing rules. 2. non-programmed decisions: These are complex, new, and unique problems with no clear solution. They require higher-level managers to handle because they are difficult and can't be solved using standard rules. Example: A manager deciding how to respond to a sudden market crisis caused by a new competitor. There are no clear rules for handling this unique, complex situation, so the manager must analyze the problem and develop a new strategy. Muddling through decision making process is a decision-making process where solutions are found step by step, without a clear or structured plan. It involves tackling problems as they arise, making adjustments along the way, and trying out different ideas until a solution is found. The process is messy, flexible, and influenced by the politics within the organization. example: A manager facing a sudden budget cut starts by addressing a small issue, but as they dig deeper, they find more complex problems (like department conflicts). The manager then adjusts their solution, seeking approval and negotiating with others until a final decision is reached. The process is not straightforward and changes as new factors emerge the Bradford studies of decision-making focus on how decisions are made in organizations, emphasizing that decision-making is often not a straightforward or rational process, but rather dynamic and influenced by various factors. The three characteristics identified in these studies are: 1. Sporadic process: Decisions are made  irregularly and in bursts, with no clear or predictable pattern. This often happens in response to urgent issues or crises. 2. Fluid process: The decision-making process is flexible and adaptable, where ideas and solutions evolve over time. It may change based on new information or perspectives. 3. Constricted process: Decision-making becomes limited or narrowed, usually due to constraints such as time, resources, or conflicting interests, resulting in fewer options being considered. two ways of managing implementation 1. management team has a clear idea of what (=refers to the process of putting a plan, it is doing (planned+experienced) strategy, or decision into action within 2. management team doing the an organization. It involves organizing implementation has less experience and is resources, assigning tasks, and overseeing not so sure what it is doing activities to ensure that the planned objectives are achieved effectively.) Three different ways of connecting 1. Continuous connectedness: This involves decision-making and implementation key people from areas like production, CCA finance, and marketing staying involved throughout the whole process. They keep the project on track and ensure commitment, even when others drop out. 2. Causal connectedness: Here, decisions are influenced by the level of disagreement and the importance of the issue. If there's high contention, decisions are made quickly, but they might be less effective. In contrast, decisions with strong consensus take longer but often have fewer problems later. 3. Anticipatory connectedness: This approach involves thinking ahead about the outcomes of a decision. If implementation seems difficult or complex, it may lead to revisiting the decision, which can extend the decision-making process. non-decision-making refers to the process where certain issues or topics are purposely ignored or avoided in decision-making. These are issues that powerful individuals or groups within an organization have decided will not be addressed, often to maintain control and avoid conflict. →it’s like when problems are deliberately left out of the discussion because they don't align with the interests of those in power. These issues are sidelined, and everyone seems to agree that they  aren’t important, even though they may be significant. Ansari et al. 2014 three strategies through 1. creating and certifying progressive which an organization balances the tension achievement levels between standardization and variation in This strategy involves setting clear, progressive decision-making: goals or benchmarks for success. As employees or teams achieve these goals, they gain certification or →These strategies help organizations recognition, which encourages standard practices manage the balance between maintaining while allowing for improvement and flexibility over consistency in operations while being time. flexible enough to adapt to different 2. setting discretionary and mandatory situations. adaptation parameters Organizations establish rules that define what can be adapted and what must remain standardized. This allows employees or teams some freedom to adjust processes based on the situation, but there are certain mandatory aspects they must follow to maintain consistency across the organization. 3. differentially adapting to context-specific and systemic misfits This strategy involves making decisions on how to adapt based on the specific context or challenges an organization faces. Some issues might require unique solutions (context-specific), while others might need broader, more systemic changes to align with overall goals. Chapter 8 Term Definition Communication the exchange of ideas, emotions, messages, stories, and info through different reasoned means an active way of creating, shaping, and maintaining relationships and enacting shared values, common cultures, and agreed goals and the means for their achievement. involves multiple meanings, interpretations, distortions, and omissions. It comprises a series of interactions seen differently by the participants. Rhetoric the art of effective and/or persuasive speaking/writing that is used to persuade/coerce/convince/achieve any other innumerable outcomes. Cybernetics the study of feedback and other communication mechanisms in machines, living organisms and organizations the concept of feedback stressed that communication was a reciprocal undertaking instead of only a one-way effort from sender to receiver. A sends info (message) to B. Info is transported through channels (media). The message does not only inform B but might change B’s behavior. B’s change in behavior is noticed (received) by A, influencing future interaction communication is an interactive circle that involves sender and receiver loops. Early communication used cybernetics to 1. flows of info focus on the relationship between superior 2. their impact on efficiency (leader) and subordinate (follower) in terms 3. the possible distortion of of: communication Disciplines within management: - marketing (communication with customers) - public relations (communication with shareholders and stakeholders, e.g. local communities/environmentalists) - human relationships (communication with internal audiences) Different emphases within an OB 1. From a cultural (organizational behaviour) perspective emphasis/perspective: communication helps create and share shared meanings and understandings, aiming to make sense of things in a way that everyone agrees on. 2. From a power perspective: organizational behavior sees communication as a way for people to express conflicts and struggles. It's used to influence others and get them to support their own views and interests. Discourse theory from this perspective: discursive communication (=Discursive communication is the use of conversation and language to share and shape ideas and meanings. It helps create our  understanding of the world through dialogue) informs our actions and decision-making processes. Elton Mayo’s perspective employees can be counseled and advised to adopt the appropriate dispositions, attitudes and motivations Taylor’s scientific management: mentions that employees were nothing but a pair of replaceable hands. Discourse analysis argues that the differences and inequalities of the social world are directly connected to the world of language Levels of communication: impersonal and interpersonal communication: 1. Dyadic: occurs between an employee and manager. Two-party communication. Can be impersonal when two people interact without direct personal contact/face-to-face. 2. Small-group: and team communication happens in meetings, brainstorming sessions, and workshops 3. organizational: a culturally driven process of sensemaking media communication: - Mass Interpersonal communication refers to the direct interaction between two or more people based on interdependence, where each person’s behavior is a consequence of the others 6 negative impacts of groupthink 1. Groups limit the discussion of alternatives to only a few and do not consider the whole range of possible solutions. 2. Those options favored by the majority are often taken without being revisited. 3. The group does not re-examine disfavoured alternatives. 4. Expert opinions are generally not valued more. 5. Groups are highly selective in collecting and valuing information.  6. Once a decision is made, the group is so confident that it does not think of alternatives for plan B scenarios. Groupthink marked by several symptoms: - Groups have an illusion of invulnerability. - Groups undertake joint efforts to (post-)rationalize the actions they undertake. - Groups tend to see themselves as inherently moral. - Persons outside the group are branded not only as outsiders but also as less worthy in some ways – they are stupid or bad, for instance. - Self-appointed ‘mind-guards’ protect the group. the group exercises self-censorship, ensuring uniformity and homogeneity crowd sourcing means getting ideas, services, or contributions from a large group of people, usually online, to solve a problem or complete a task. organizational communication Organizational communication follows repeated patterns based on shared understandings of roles and what matters in the organization. Weick (1979) says this shared "grammar" reduces uncertainty and helps members communicate in predictable ways to manage their tasks. Weick: communication takes place on the basis of shared understandings and taken-for-granted assumptions of who’s who and what counts inside the organization, which determine how one communicates with others. comprises a series of recurring communication patterns that occur throughout the entire organizations. Shared meanings agreements concerning what is real and what is not. Meanings are not always shared in organizations. Mass communication 1. Communication directed to a large, anonymous and heterogeneous audience  2. primarily one-way, meaning that feedback from the audience was restricted 3. transmitted through different channels that work fast 4. usually performed by a big organization rather than individuals Mass communication is the process of sharing information with large groups of people through media like TV, radio, newspapers, or the internet. Mass media channels of communication, such as television, radio, newspapers, magazines, and the internet, that reach and influence large audiences at once. Digital monitoring Digital monitoring brings together different groups with varied interests, creating alliances and conflicts. This challenges the traditional control of those in power over what is visible and what stays hidden. Rich communication processes 4 functions: 1. Informative: Communication shares (Bordow et al.1991) 4 important functions of facts and data that guide actions communication processes: and decisions. 2. Systemic: Communication connects members, enabling smooth teamwork and interaction. 3. Literal: Communication doesn’t just share facts; it also creates meaning and understanding. 4. Figurative: Communication shows the organization’s identity, mission, and purpose, building its legitimacy.I Intraorganizational communication occurs inside an organization and typically engages organizational members. Interorganizational communication takes place between members of different organizations Types of communication: 1. Downward: flow of communication from superior to subordinate 2. Upward: from subordinate to superiors 3. Horizontal: takes place between different departments. Oliver 1990: 6 reasons why organizations 1. necessity might collaborate 2. asymmetry 3. reciprocity  4. efficiency 5. stability 6. legitimacy Successful networks rely on managed 1. boundary spanner communication in which 2 roles are 2. interlocker important: Communication with stakeholders communication between an organization and other relevant parties such as media, community groups, labour unions, politicians). brand image an organization creates through design, behaviour and its products and services. Brands help us to make up our own identity and provide us with devices to tell others who we are. branding is a way for a company to communicate their identity. Successful branding includes creating a relationship with the customers as a company. Communication at work Rogers 1991: the main obstacle to communication is people’s tendency to evaluate. Change can only be accomplished by understanding with someone and not by understanding about someone. (people tend to forget to understand other’s persons point of view and only stick to their own view). Communication is more powerful when it uses images instead of words and concepts. Polyphony many different voices=different ideas and perspectives. narratives are not only devices of sensemaking but also a ‘politically motivated production of a certain way of perceiving the world’ monotonic means something that moves in a single direction without reversing or changing. It can either consistently increase or decrease.  example: If sales numbers increase every month without dropping, the growth is monotonic. Chapter 9 Term Definition Knowledge The collection of ideas, meanings, and understanding about how things work and relate to each other. sources of knowledge: 1. learning by doing common sense, reflection and informal conv help managers how to react/what to do in certain situations. 2. hearing stories story is a good format because it relates the core of an experience 3. being exposed to popular accounts Fulop and Rifkin (1999): refer to stories that are printed and communicated through management as exemplary cases drawn from a great orgnaizational culture. Managers also learn from well-known success stories shared in books, seminars, or media. These stories, like CEO achievements, provide tips and inspiration. 4. being curious and doing research Doing proper research helps managers overcome ignorance and understand complex issues, like how science discovered diseases’ real causes, debunking myths and superstitions. Knowledge management Organizing and using knowledge (know-how and know-why) to address current and future needs. Organizational learning Fixing mistakes and improving processes by learning from them. Learning Gaining new knowledge and skills beyond what you already know. Tacit knowledge Knowledge that is hard to explain like riding a bike. consists of personal beliefs, values and perspectives Explicit knowledge knowledge that can be explained and shared. Nonala’s tacit and explicit 1. Socialization (tacit to tacit knowledge): knowledge dimensions people learn through observing and mimicking SCIA others without thinking about it, like e.g. learning traffic patterns in different countries through experience, not a manual  2. Combination (explicit to explicit): people/organizations share and combine knowledge 3. Internalization (explicit to tacit): Knowledge you consciously learned becomes second nature over time. 4. Articulation (tacit to explicit): Through articulating and sharing knowledge within the organization new knowledge becomes accessible and part of official processes. Agile approaches Agile approaches are flexible ways to manage projects, focusing on small, quick steps, teamwork, and regular feedback to adapt to changes and deliver results faster. SIngle loop learning=setting down for an okay solution without Single-loop learning is when people or organizations questioning. fix problems using existing rules and strategies without questioning them. Example: A manager notices declining sales and increases advertising without examining whether the product itself needs improvement. Double loop learning=takes longer the time; rethinking and Double-loop learning goes deeper, questioning the considering multiple things. underlying rules and assumptions to create better solutions. Example: Instead of just increasing advertising, the manager investigates why sales are declining, realizes the product doesn’t meet customer needs, and decides to redesign it. Single vs double loop learning: Single Double learning the learning requires competencies necessary thinking and learning to play a game with about whats the most success. valuable game to play concerns acting involves learning what according to the rules the actual rules of the game are and how they might be changed to  make another game focuses on optimizing challenges the core problem-solving assumtions/beliefs/value behavior in a given s that frame the context context Knowledge exploitation Knowledge exploitation is using existing knowledge to improve efficiency and achieve immediate goals. Example: A company uses its current product designs to make small upgrades and boost sales. occurs through routine and standardization and what has already been done but then doing it more cheaply, quickly and efficiently. Knowledge exploration Knowledge exploration is seeking new knowledge and ideas to innovate and prepare for the future. Example: A company invests in researching new technologies to create groundbreaking products. involves randomness and risktaking, not knowing what one will find Atrophy weakening/losing strength over time due to lack of use/activity e.g.: a companies skills in innovation that declines if it stops investing in research+development The dilemma of organization the dialectic between exploring new ideas and learning exploiting (uitmelken) old ones The success trap success can breed failure. It arises from being too good at exploitation. ambidextrous organization balances 1. Exploitation – Improving and optimizing current operations for efficiency. 2. Exploration – Innovating and experimenting to create new opportunities. Contemporary approaches say that an organization's ability to explore new  opportunities and improve existing ones depends on both its structure and the manager’s network of connections. Knowledge management focuses on existing resources within an organization Organizational learning focuses on the dynamic development of those existing resources. social learning systems occurs when people who have a common interest in a problem collaborate to share ideas and find solutions Wenger 2002 communities in 1. Sense of joint enterprise: members need to practice are characterized by: understand the community and how they can SRS contribute 2. Relationships of mutuality: communities are built and sustained through interaction between their members 3. Shared repertoire: shared stories, routines, etc will emerge in and across organizations over time. →shared assumptions can lead to homogeneity, blindness and groupthink. Managing boundaries →with less clearly defined boundaries ideas flow more easily Boundary-spanning activity offers unique and rich learning opportunities. An outsider’s perspective can trigger new insights. 1. People: people can act as brokers that span boundaries aka connecting two different worlds/companies, e.g.: interlocking directors 2. Artefacts: objects like tools, documents that can act as bridges between different groups 3. Interaction: people from different backgrounds learn new ideas through interaction. Interlocking directors someone who already has a director function at another company and can bring their experience from that firm to another type of organization Collaborative relations involve sharing resources, ideas, technologies and staff between two or more different organizations to create a solution. Oxymoron a figure of speech that combines two normally contradicting terms. Organizational learning is an oxymoron: organizing involves ordering and controlling, learning involves disorganizes existing knowledge and increases variety. Weick and Westley (1999) 3 ways to deal with the 1. Humour: jokes/funny situations give learning complexities of exploring and opportunities because they play with meaning. exploiting: It carries the flexibility/richness of a quick and creative response to the environment. 2. Improvisation: deals with the tension between learning and organizing. It is based on the interplay between past, present and future. in situ=in the moment, suggesting that workers learn naturally in the workplace. 3. Small wins: the learning opportunities that happen when u almost do business as usual. Non-learning organizations are 1. Tolerance of contradictions: non-learning healthier than learning ones organizations are more flexible and when -Brunsson(1998). This can result faced with contradictions/uncertainty they can in unexpected benefits for the still operate normally. Learning organizations organization: would have to adjust their behavior and objectives. 2. Organizational discretion: Non-learning are satisfied with the same report that they receive, whereas a learning one would become unsatisfied and would want to seek better info. examination mechanisms: 1. visibility: making individuals visible and differentiate who is clever and who is not by a supervisor. During an examination, the learning subjects are fully visible. The examiners are absent. Power works through surveillance. 2. Individuality: turning a group into individuals by making individual features comparable. 3. Case: exams transform individual characters into cases that are documented and objectified. Examinations combine hierarchical surveillance (=when higher-ups monitor the activities of those below them in an organization to ensure tasks are done correctly and rules are followed) of people with the normalizing judgment of the supervisor. Chapter 10 Term Definition