Organizational Theories PDF

Organizational Theories Tags Done Book Source Author Muchinsky, Levy, Jex, Spector, McShane Ended @12/06/2023 Started @12/05/2023 Organizatio...

Organizational Theories Tags Done Book Source Author Muchinsky, Levy, Jex, Spector, McShane Ended @12/06/2023 Started @12/05/2023 Organizations collectives of parts that cannot accomplish their goals as effectively if they operate separately Organizational Theory set of propositions that explains or predicts how groups and individuals behave in varying organizational structures and circumstances Classical Organizational Theory Four Components: A system of differentiated activities all organizations are composed of the activities and functions performed in them and the relationships among these activities and functions formal organization emerges when these activities are linked together People people perform tasks and exercise authority Cooperation toward a goal cooperation must exist among the people performing their various activities to achieve a unity of purpose in pursuit of their common goals Authority Organizational Theories 1  established through superior-subordinate relationships, and such authority is needed to ensure cooperation among people pursuing their goals Four basic tenets: organizations exist for economic reasons and to accomplish productivity goals scientific analysis will identify the one best way to organize for production specialization and the division of labor maximize production both people and organizations act in accordance with rational economic principles workers were viewed as interchangeable cogs in an organization-wide machine common argument: organizations should work like machines, with people and technology as their components conceptualized during the late 19th and 20th centuries theories were developed to provide directionless organizations with formal, orderly, and efficient functioning Scientific Management Frederick Taylor approach is also called Taylorism the organization is a pragmatic machine whose focus is simply to run more effectively tactic: conduct studies that gather data indicating what the fastest and most efficient method is, then implement that method Four Principles: management gathers data from workers they are in the best position to understand the job duties and tasks data are analyzed and reduced to laws and rules applied to workers’ jobs in the form of detailed procedures and how-to explanations workers are selected carefully or “scientifically” and then trained Organizational Theories 2  so that they become more efficient than ever before scientific selection, data collection, and training are combined to enhance efficiency these processes must be brought together because science and workers are not a natural combination work itself is redistributed management taking over tasks previously left to subordinates cooperation and genuine sharing of the labor were important if the overall process was to work Summary: Workers are selected to gather data from for a scientific study. Afterwards, they will be trained and managers will share the labor of the subordinates. Design vs. Performance those who design the work should be separate from those who actually perform the work those who design the work occupy a higher status than those who perform it Work should be broken down into the smallest and simplest components possible implies that an organization should consist of similar groups of employees, all performing highly specialized tasks Example case: “Science of Shoveling” Taylor noticed that there was great variability in the loads that men placed on their shovels He paid employees to shovel for a specified period of time with varying loads He found that efficiency (amount shoveled at a certain time) varies with function of size of the shovel load Results: as loads got smaller, efficiency improved due to the employees’ greater strength and energy. Optimum shovel load was 20.5 pounds Taylor developed shovels with max capacity of 21 pounds and taught employees how to use them Organizational Theories 3  Daily yield of coal went from 16 tons to 59 tons Bureaucracy Max Weber Four Major Structural Principles: Functional Principle concept behind division of labor organization should be divided into units that perform similar functions employees are narrowly trained to do only the particular tasks and duties assigned to their jobs each job is a specialized position with its own set of responsibilities and duties similar work activities are often organized into departments, which enhances coordination of activities and permits more effective supervision and more rational flow of work relates to horizontal growth of the organization new functional units along the horizontal dimension dividing up tasks allows the organization to take advantage of individuals’ particular strengths, avoiding the problems that result from asking people to perform tasks requiring skills they don’t possess it is good that each employee has their particular task to do, but it can be difficult to coordinate the many tasks done by all employees while ensuring the particular outcome for the organization Scalar Principle Hierarchical System of Supervision bureaucracies tend to be top-down pyramidal organizations at every level of the organization, employees report to a person one level up in the chain of command Organizational Theories 4  best way to overcome organizational fragmentation caused by division of labor deals with the organization’s vertical growth refers to the chain of command that grows with levels added to the organization each level has its own degree of authority and responsibility for meeting organizational goals higher levels = more responsibility unity of command each subordinate should be accountable to only one superior unity of direction information within a bureaucratic organization flows in one direction - typically from the top of the organization to lower levels benefit: increases the predictability and stability of information flow Line/Staff Principle of Authority Authority Organizational Theories 5  approach whereby supervisors, rather than trying to do everything themselves, assign particular tasks to separate employees and hold them responsible for task completion micro-managers try to take charge of everything that goes on in the organization rather than holding employees responsible for individual tasks incapable of delegating Line Functions primary responsibility for meeting the major goals of the organization Staff Functions support the line’s activities but are regarded as subsidiary in overall importance to line functions Note: an organization was not created to provide people with jobs or products to inspect. It was created to manufacture products (line function), and personnel and quality control are only two staff functions designed to support this larger goal Span of Control Principle number of subordinates who report to a given supervisor too large ⇒ supervisors are unable to manage so many subordinates produce flat organizations few levels between the top and bottom of the organizations solution: have middle-level managers to supervise certain number of subordinates within their capabilities mid-level managers report to an upper-level manager too small ⇒ overabundance of supervisors managing too few employees produce tall organizations many levels Organizational Theories 6  Issues Important to Weberian Bureaucracy Daniel Katz and Robert Kahn (1978) Task Standardization pertains to the training of employees toward the “one best way” to get a job done Decision making should be centralized major decisions are made by one or more individuals who are centralized under one command Weber himself warned that work in a bureaucracy can be so simplified and unchallenging that workers might become dissatisfied and unmotivated, resulting in lower productivity overall Administrative Management Henri Fayol Management functions planning, organizing, commanding, coordination, and controlling 14 Organizing Principles Division of work individuals and managers work on the same part or task Authority and responsibility Authority Organizational Theories 7  right to give orders power to exact obedience goes with responsibility for reward and punishment Discipline obedience, application, energy, behavior agreement between firm and individual Unity of command orders received from one supervisor Unity of direction one head and one plan for activities with the same objective Subordination of individual interest to general interest organizational objective come before the objectives of the individual Remuneration of personnel fairness of pay to the organization and the individual; discussed various forms Centralization amount of discretion held by the manager compared to that allowed to subordinates Scalar chain line of authority from lowest to top Order a place for everyone, and everyone in his or her place Equity Emphasis on kindness and justice Stability of tenure of personnel ability in managerial ranges time to adapt to work Organizational Theories 8  Initiative power of thinking out and executing a plan Esprit de corps harmony and union among personnel is strength Neoclassical Theory go back to the findings from the Hawthorne studies the name neoclassical connotes a modernization or updating of the classical theory, while still acknowledging its contributions there is no formal theory, but rather a recognition of psychological and behavioral issues that question the rigidity brought by the classical theory Critiques of each Principle: Division of Labor while it causes functional interdependence among work activities, it also depersonalizes these activities so that the individual finds little meaning in them people develop a sense of alienation from highly repetitive work, which results in dissatisfaction. In turn, dissatisfaction can result in decreased efficiency caused by lowered productivity and increased absence neoclassicists push for less rigid division of labor and more humanistic work in which people derive a sense of value and meaning from their jobs Scalar Principle other systems operate on people in organizations besides those imposed by formal superior-subordinate relationships although scalar principle prescribes formal lines of authority, in reality many sources operating in an organization influence the individual Line/Staff Principle the black and white theoretical distinction between line and staff functions is not always so clear in practice Organizational Theories 9  Example: a manufacturing company’s purpose is to produce, but if it does not sell what it produces, the company cannot survive what then is the sales function? line or staff function? many staff functions are critical to the success of the organization, so the value of the distinction between line and staff is not so great as originally proposed Span of Control determining a satisfactory span of control seems far more complex than picking a number it depends on such issues: supervisor’s managerial ability poor managers cannot supervise many subordinates intensity of the needed supervision one could effectively manage many more subordinates who do not require much direction than those who do require intensive direction leadership style and capacity primary contribution of the neoclassical theory was to reveal that the principle proposed by classical theory were not as universally applicable and simple as originally formulated neoclassicicsts drew heavily on behavioral research that revealed the importance of individual differences rather than attempting to change the theory, they tried to make it fit the realities of human behavior in organizations Humanistic Theory Human Relations Movement resulted from the reaction to the rigidity of classical organizational theory emphasized employees’ motives, goals, and aspirations - which were not associated with classical theory Organizational Theories 10  highlights the relationship between supervisor and subordinate explains organizational success in terms of employee motivation and the interpersonal relationships that emerge within the organization Theory X and Theory Y D.M. McGregor managers’ beliefs and assumptions about their employees determine how they behave towards those employees managers’ behaviors affect employees’ attitudes and behaviors, which in turn affect managers’ attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors highlights interaction between employees and management Self-fulfilling prophecy (Theory X) employees, over time, learn to act and believe in ways consistent with how managers think they act and believe - even if this wasn’t the case initially Theory X Organizational Theories 11  employees were traditionally viewed as lazy, interested only in what’s best for themselves, inherently uninterested in work, lacking in ambition, and not very intelligent management’s job was to control and direct employees in order to make economic profits without a firm hand, it was thought that employees would be passive and unresponsive to the organization’s needs this was the most prevalent set of beliefs about employees from the birth of the industry until the mid-1900s Theory Y McGregor did not dispute the notion that employees lacked ambition and were somewhat lazy; but he argued that they had developed these behaviors because of the way they were treated by managers, whose behaviors in turn stemmed from their preconceived notions about employees takes a much more humanistic and developmental orientation, emphasizing not only the inherent goodness, capacity, and potential of employees, but also their readiness to develop those inherent characteristics emphasizes management’s responsibility for nurturing those qualities and providing employees with opportunities to develop their inherently positive characteristics in the workplace Organizational Theories 12  The Human Organization R. Likert proposed that organizations could be classified into four different types/systems: System 1 Exploitative Authoritarian very similar to Theory X characterized as having very little trust in employees scant communication between employees and management very centralized decision making control achieved in a very “top-down” manner results in largely dissatisfied employees and a low level of organizational performance Organizational Theories 13  System 2 Benevolent Authoritative there is some level of trust in employees at times, management uses employees’ ideas little more communication as opposed to system 1 on occasion, employees have an opportunity to communicate their ideas to upper management employees are still treated in a largely authoritative manner, but the organization is a bit nicer to them results in moderate level of satisfaction toward their work, and organizational performance may be fair to good System 3 Consultative subtantially greater trust in employees, and their ideas are used a great deal more more overall communication in the organization most communication flows from the bottom up decision making is still centralized, but the manner is different from systems 1 and 2 those at the top of the organization set broad policies; and more specific operational decisions are made by those at lower organizational levels employees work on goals that they adopt after some discussion, and at times they may resist organizational goals some level of control resides at lower organizational levels, and the information that flows within the organization is accurate capable of “goal” performance, although it may never reach a level of extremely high excellence Organizational Theories 14  Sytem 4 Participative Group managers have complete trust in subordinates alwasy seek subordinates’ input before making decisions communication is free-flowing in all directions disadvantage: information overflow or distortion there is a great reliance on teamwork decision making occurs at all organizational levels and with a high level of involvement employees work on goals that they have a say in developing and as a result, there is a great deal of acceptance of them control mechanisms are applied at all levels of the organization information available to employees is complete and accurate only one of the four that is truly capable of excellent performance J.G. Liker and Araki proposed a System 5 similar to System 4, but differs in a way that leadership is a shared enterprise the organization has no “bosses” con: although absence of bosses may contribute to an egalitarian atmosphere, it may also be problematic at times when someone needs to take charge Open-System Theory Daniel Katz and Robert Kahn Three Key Elements: inputs throughputs outputs Organizational Theories 15  Process: inputs are transformed during the throughputs stage into outputs, which in turn are brought back into the process as additional inputs - and thus the process continues organization thrive only as long as there is a continuous flow of energy from the external environment into the system and a continuous export of products out of the system based on the principle of biology that define all living things as open systems Characteristics of Open Systems Importation of Energy energy is brought in from the external environment for use by the system e.g. raw materials Throughput that energy is transformed Output product or serice is exported Systems as cycles pattern of importation of energy and exportation of products and services continues Negative entropy tendency of all systems to move eventually toward death is reversed Organizational Theories 16  Entropy principle in many branches of science positing that all forms of organization move toward disorganization or death Information Input and Negative Feedback allow the system to correct or adjust its course negative feedback loop provides information about where and how the organization is getting off-course The Steady State surviving open systems are characterized by a balance in energy exchange Differentiation open systems move toward more specialized functions Integration and Coordination bringing the system together as a unified process is necessary for the system to continue Equifinality there are many ways within the system to get to the same conclusion or end point reaching the same end state in different ways inconsistent with the basic premise of Scientific Management which is “one best way” to do everything Systems Theory views an organization as existing in an interdependent relationship with its environment a complex organization is a social system the various discrete segments and functions in it do not behave as isolated elements all parts affect all other parts every action has repercussions throughout the organization, because all of its elements are linked Organizational Theories 17  Five Parts Individuals bring their own personalities, abilities, and attitudes with them to their organization, which influence what they hope to attain by participating in the system Formal organization interrelated pattern of jobs that provides the structure of the system Small groups individuals do not work in isolation but become members of small groups as a way to facilitate their own adaptability within the system Status and role status and role differences exist among jobs within an organization and define the behavior of individuals within the system Physical setting external physical environment and the degree of technology that characterizes the organization Organizational Theories 18  complex interactions exist among all parts of the system. individuals interact to form small groups members of the groups are differentiated by status and roles physical environment affects the behavior of individuals and groups all exist within the framework provided by the organization Organizational Communication necessary to have a means to provide coordination and linkage among parts making up the system occurs through a series of networks that often bear little resemblance to formal lines of authority decisions are often made in ways that deviate from fromal lines of authority communication is the means by which the system can be responsive to its environment Achilles’ heel of most large organizations is failure to communicate Organizational Theories 19  Systems theory views organizations as any other form of living organism purpose of an organization is to reach stability, to grow, and to adapt Contingency Theory Herbert A. Simon basic premise is that design of an organization must be consistent with the situation also called decision theory, views organizations as a structure composed of choice-makers, and argues that there is no on right way to make a decision Contingency theorists believe that management is responsible for analyzing business situations and then acting accordingly to address any issues or challenges Organization⇒ Work & Guidelines Environment ⇒ Social, Political, Economic, Legal vs. Open Systems open systems focus on external factors or environment happening OUTSIDE the organization Motivation Theories Need-Motive-Value Theories emphasize the role of personality traits, stable dispositions, needs, and values focus on need a force that organizaes perceptions, beliefs, cognitions, and actions, giving rise to behaviors that reduce the force and bring about a steady state Theories Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow Organizational Theories 20  assumes, in part, that we are all aroused by biological and instinctive needs and that people behave as they do in order to satisfy those needs Hierarchy: Physiological Needs food, shelter, and water - the basic needs fro existence Safety Needs needs to be free from threat and danger Love Needs a.k.a Social Needs needs for affiliation, belonging, and friendship Esteem Needs respect from others, self-confidence, and belief in oneself Self-actualization top of the hierarchy needs to fulfill one’s potential Self-transcendence Maslow considered a level above self-actualization focuses on causes beyond the self, such as social justice, art, and faith Organizational Theories 21  humans are motivated first by lower-order needs. When these needs are met, higher-order needs become more important as motivators of behavior Organizational implication: different employees are likely to be at different places in the hierarchy, such that no one thing can be assumed to motivate all employees Alderfer’s ERG Theory Alderfer focused on the subjective states of need satisfcation and desire Satisfaction is an internal state resulting from the attainment of one’s goals Desire is similar to such concepts as want or intensity of need strength Three Categories: Existence Needs analogous to Maslow’s physiological and safety needs Organizational Theories 22  Relatedness Needs Maslow’s love needs focused on social relationships Growth Needs Maslow’s esteem and self-actualization needs focus is on interacting successfully with one’s environment through exploration and mastery Difference vs. Hierarchy of Needs ERG suggests that all three categories of needs can operate simultaneously rather than in sequence as suggested by Maslow Frustration-Regression Analysis allows for situations in which an individual who is frustrated at a higher level of need then refocuses energy on satisfying a lower-level need when we are frustrated over trying to do too much, we can focus instead on maintaining excellence in another way until we are reenergized to resume our attack on higher-order needs Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Frederick Herzberg determinants of job satisfaction were different from those of job dissatisfaction suggests that satisfaction and dissatisfaction were two different constructs than opposite ends of a continuum Motivators recognition, work responsibility, reinforcement for work well done, and potential achievement have to do with job content these lead employees to be satisfied with and motivated by their jobs Organizational Theories 23  Presence: job satisfaction Absence: job neutrality Note: true satisfaction only results from having motivators Hygienes related to job context supervision, salary, and working conditions Presence: minimal level of satisfaction or neutrality Absence: Dissatisfaction it is not enough to provide for a reasonable context, the content of the job must be taken into account as well Positive Psychology study of positive human attributes such as well-being, optimism, creativity, and spirituality Overview Organizational Theories 24  Job Characteristics Theory Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham emphasis is on matching individuals to jobs or changing jobs to better fit individuals motivation is determined by the joint effects of individual differences in personality and characteristics of the job any job can be described by five core job dimensions: Skill variety does not involve the same old thing everyday Task identity employees can point to some aspect of their work as being the result of their own efforts Task significance Organizational Theories 25  employees’ tasks appear to matter to coworkers or others in society at large Autonomy Feedback jobs vary along these dimensions with some having more of one and less of another three critical psychological states jobs perceives as meaningful lead them to assume personal responsibility for the outcomes they produce jobs are likely to motivate employees to put forth some effort by providing them with knowledge of the results of these efforts personal and work outcomes follow from the psychological states include: high internal motivation to work hard and excel high quality of work performance high satisfaction with the work low absenteeism and turnover Organizational Theories 26  Two Major Implications jobs should be designed with the core dimensions in mind because positive outcomes are believed to follow from these core dimensions, it is reasonable to design and redesign jobs to be high on each dimension some thought could be given to the placement of employees in jobs growth need strength extent to which individuals value or desire fulfilling higher-order needs moderates the relationships among the variables in the model job characteristics theory is considered a theory of intrinsic motivation because of its emphasis on personal mastery and control Organizational Theories 27  Intrinsic Motivation Theories Cognitive Evaluation Theory Deci assumes that individuals adopt either than intrinsic or extrinsic motivational orientation Self-Determination Theory Ryan and Deci focused on specifying factors that explain variability in intrinsic motivation postulates that social-contextual events (e.g. reception of feedback or rewards) that enhance perceptions of competence improve intrinsic motivation perceptions of competence must be believe to be self-determined or attributed to one’s own abilities or effort in order for intrinsic motivation to follow self-determination continuum ranging from amotivation (no self-determination) to intrinsic motivation (total self-determination) levels of extrinsic motivation in between, each varyin in the level of self- determination overjustification effect providing external reinforcement reduces intrinsic motivation external reinforcement must gradually decline in order to increase intrinsic motivation Cognitive Choice Theories assumption is that people are neither passively driven by inner needs nor controlled by their environment people are active decision makers who strive to be rational in choosing what to do, how much effort they exert, and so on Organizational Theories 28  Equity Theory J. Stacy Adams focused on social justice behavior is initiated, directed, and maintained by individuals trying to preserve some internal psychological balance stemmed in part from Leon Festinger who developed the theory of cognitive dissonance explains how and why we change our behaviors or beliefs to be consistent with other behaviors or beliefs people’s perceptions and beliefs about the fairness of their treatment at work affect their motivation, attitudes, and behaviors based on the notion that we compare the ratios of what we bring to a situation and what we get out of it with what others bring to and get out of the situation Four main postulates: people strive to maintain a state of equity when inequity is perceived, a state of tension results when faced with this tension, people are motivated to reduce the tension the greater the magnitude of the perceived inequity, the greater the motivation to act to reduce the tension Organizational Theories 29  inequity results not because someone doesn’t get what they deserve, rather because compared with what others have to offer, what the individual has to offer gets them relatively less than they get Ways of reducing perceived inequity changing inputs stop working so hard and avoid working overtime altering one’s effort changing outcomes asking the boss for a raise, a promotion, additional benefits, recognition, etc. altering perceptions convince oneself that their ratio is about the same as their coworkers short-term solution for reducing tension may seem like “tricking” oneself equity sensitivity accounts for the notion that people differ in terms of their sensitivity to overreward or underreward situations types depending on how employees score on equity sensitivity measures: Benevolents more tolerant of underreward inequity Entitleds always want overreward Equity-sensitives truly desire the state of equity or balance organizational justice fairness in the workplace equity theory served as its foundation Organizational Theories 30  types: distributive justice Adams’ work on equity theory focused on fairness with respect to outcomes procedural justice extent to which the procedures and processes used at work are perceived to be fair by employees interactional justice the way in which decisions and procedures are communicated to employees focuses on the extent to which individuals are provided information about the rationale and purpose of organizational decisions Expectancy Theory Victor Vroom VIE Model valence-instrumentality-expectancy people’s behaviors result from conscious choices among alternatives and that these alternatives are evaluated with respect to valence, instrumentality, and expectancy assumes that individuals are rational and make rational decision Expectancy individual’s belief about the likelihood of achieving a desired performance level when exerting a certain amount of effort referred to as the effort ⇒ performance link Instrumentality Organizational Theories 31  perceived relationship between the performance of a particular behavior and the likelihood that a certain outcome will result from that behavior performance ⇒ outcome link Valence literally means “value” expected level of satisfaction to be derived from some outcome an outcome is positively valued if the individual expects to be satisfied by obtaining it if one outcome is instrumental for other outcomes, that first outcome is likely to be positively valued Organizational Theories 32  individuals’ beliefs about values, instrumentalities, and expectancies interact psychologically to create the motivational force to act in such a way as to bring pleasure and avoid pain we tend to do things that make us pleased and proud and not to do things that displease or disappoint us multiplicative function of motivation VxIxE if any of the three is 0, there is no motivation in organization perspective, although some employees may value a favorable performance review in and of itself, most value it only if it leads to something else the VIE model was developed to account for how motivated an individual is to exhibit a certain behavior vs. a different behavior - it was not developed to compare the motivations of two people to perform the same behavior Self-Regulation Theories revolve around goal-directed behaviors motivation is directly linked to self-regulation the manner in which individuals monitor their own behaviors and make adjustments to those behaviors in the pursuit of goals self-regulation theories come into play after a goal has been chosen whereas needs-motives-values theories and cognitive choice theories deal with intentions or choices, self-regulation theories deal with volition or will Goal Setting Theory Edwin Locke suggests that goals affect behavior in four ways: goals direct our attention to a particular task or element of a task (direction) goals mobilize on-task effort (focus) Organizational Theories 33  goals allow us to focus our effort appropriately to move toward their attainment goals enable us to be persistent as we strive toward their attainment (persistence) goals help us facilitate strategies that can be used at a higher cognitive level to move toward their attainment (strategies) Three Propositions: people tend to perform better when they are assigned or choose difficult, specific goals than when they are assigned or choose easy goals or no goals goal-setting effect improved performance as a result of difficult, specific goals occurs only when individuals accept and are committed to those goals feedback about a person’s performance in relation to the goal positively affects that performance Key Statement: Motivation is enhanced when employees accept and are committed to specific, difficult goals and when feedback about progress toward those goals is provided Social Cognitive Theories stress the interplay of both behavioral and cognitive elements in motivation emphasizes the cognitive, behavioral, individual, and environmental factors that work together in determining motivation Self-Regulation Theory Albert Bandura self-regulation is composed of three major components: Self-observation Organizational Theories 34  extent to which we pay attention to specific aspects of our behavior we cannot attend to all dimensions of our behavior; thus, we have to choose which ones will occupy our attention Self-evaluation accounts for the attention that individuals devote to feedback processes how we evaluate our own performance Self-reactions internal responses to self-evaluation may be either affective (feeling disgruntled or overjojyed) or behavioral (increasing effort, goal shift, or abandonment of goal) Self-Efficacy expectations individuals’ perceptions of their ability to successfully complete a task or attain a goal strengthening one’s self-efficacy enhances motivation to attain a particular goal intimately related to the expectancy component of the VIE theory Control Theory Klein (1989) a social cognitive motivational theory with a negative feedback loop at its core negative feedback loop results from the comparison of performance feedback with some goal or standard if people perceive a discrepancy between the feedback and the standard, they are motivated to reduce that discrepancy in some way Organizational Theories 35  objective is to control the situation so that the feedback and the standard match to keep sensed values (feedback) in conformity with the reference value (standard) Carver and Scheier to compare your behavior against an abstract standard, you often seek out concrete information that facilitates the abstract comparison Other Motivation Theories Reinforcement Theory describes how rewards or reinforcements can affect behavior theory does not deal with internal states such as motivation, so it is a nonmotivational theory explains behavior as a function of prior reward experiences law of effect Thorndike the probability of a particulat behavior increases if it is followed by a reward or reinforcement Organizational Theories 36  conversely, the probability of a behavior decreases if it is followed by a punishment rewards can be tangible (money) or intangible (praise) rewards can be given by the organization (bonus for good performance) or be a by- product of tasks themselves (sense of accomplishment) incentive systems result of the notion that rewards reinforce favorable organizational behaviors works with quantifiable and measurable performance-relevant behaviors Self-Efficacy Theory Albert Bandura motivation and performance are determined in part by how effective people believe they can be high self-efficacy believe that they are capable of accomplishing tasks and will be motivated to put forth effort low self-efficacy do not believe they are capable and will not be motivated to put forth effort it is like a self-fulfilling prophecy in which a person behaves in a manner that fulfills their initial belief people vary in self-efficacy across different tasks Galatea effect Eden people’s beliefs about their own capabilities lead them to perform better, as in a self-fulfilling prophecy Organizational Theories 37  Action Theory Frese and Zapf (1994) work motivation theories should focus mainly on goal-oriented or volitional (voluntary) behaviors called actions actions are the product of a conscious intent to accomplish something action process begins with an initial desire to accomplish or have something desire leads to specific goals and objectives to achieve or acquire it goals are often tied to tasks that define the nature of what the individual employee is supposed to accomplish at work distinction between external and internal tasks external task is assigned by the organization internal task is chosen by the employee redefinition process ⇒ employee translates an external task into an internal one employee changes the assigned task to suit themself translate goals into plans plans are specific steps chosen to accomplish the goals and are specifications of actions and sequences of actions plan is executed execution involves actions finally, the person receives feedback either from the environment itself or from other people feedback informs employee about whether progress is being made toward the goal positive feedback⇒ help maintain actions that are part of plans negative feedback ⇒ lead to modification of goals, plans, or actions Organizational Theories 38  action vs state orientation action oriented tends to follow the action process state oriented have difficulty committing to a course of action, are easily distracted, and give up when faced with setbacks Learned Needs Theory David McClelland strength can be altered through social influences a person’s needs can be strengthened through reinforcement, learning, and social conditions Three Learned Needs: Needs for Achievement strong want to accomplish reasonably challenging goals through their own effort prefer working alone rather than in teams and they choose tasks with a moderate degree of risk (neither too easy or too hard) desire unambiguous feedback and recognition money is a weak motivator, except when it provides feedback and recognition Organizational Theories 39  weak perform their work better when money is used as an incentive Needs for Affiliation desire to seek approval from others, conform to their wishes and expectations, and avoid conflict and confrontation strong try to project a favorable image of themselves tend to actively support others and try to smooth out workplace conflicts work well in coordinating roles to mediate conflicts and in sales positions where the main task is cultivating long-term relations tend to be less effective at allocating scarce resources and making other decisions that potentially generate conflict weak must be in the decision-making position so that their choice and actions are not biased by a personal need for approval Needs for Power strong want to exercise control over other and are concerned about maintaining their leadership position frequently rely on persuasive communication, make more suggestions in meetings, and publicly evaluate situations more often two types: personalizzed power individuals who enjoy their power for its own sake, use it to advance personal interests, and wear their power as a status symbol Organizational Theories 40  socialized power desire power as a means to help others this should be for effective leaders Four-Drive Theory Paul Lawrence and Nitin Nohria Four Drives: Drive to acquire drive to seek, take, control, and retain objects and personal experiences extends beyond basic food and water; includes enhancing one’s self- concept through relative status and recognition in society is insatiable because the purpose of human motivation is to achieve a higher positon than others, not just to fulfill one’s physiological needs Drive to bond drive to form social relationships and develop mutual caring commitments with others explains why people form social identities by aligning their self-concept with various social groups Drive to learn drive to satisfy our curiosity, to know and understand ourselves and the environment around us when observing something that is inconsistent with or beyond our current knowledge, we experience a tension that motivates us to close that information gap Drive to defend drive to protect ourselves physically and socially creates a “fight-or-flight” response in the face of personal danger Organizational Theories 41  goes beyond protecting our physical self; includes defending our relationships, our acquisitions, and our belief systems drives are innate and universal and are independent of each other there is no hierarchy of drives, so no one drive is neither dependent on nor inherently inferior or superior to another drive all are proactive - only drive to defend is reactive the four drives determine which emotions are tagged to incoming stimuli emotions generated by the four drives motivate us to act, and our mental skill set chooses courses of action that are acceptable to society and our own moral compass Summary drives produce emotions self-concept, social norms, and past experience translate emotions into goal- directed needs individual characteristics translate needs into decisions and behavior Organizational Theories 42