Osteology Theory Topics/Questions PDF

Osteology theory topics/questions Anatomical position The anatomical position is when the body is standing erect, with the face looking forwards, the feet parallel, the arms hanging at the sides, the palms facing forw...

Osteology theory topics/questions Anatomical position The anatomical position is when the body is standing erect, with the face looking forwards, the feet parallel, the arms hanging at the sides, the palms facing forwards and the thumbs pointing away from the body. Axes and planes of the body Planes coronal plane (vertical plane) - anterior and posterior sagittal plane (vertical plane/medial plane) - left and right transeverse plane - superior and inferior Axes horizontal axis (X- axis) from left to right intersection of coronal and transverse plane vertical axis (Y- axis) inferior to superior intersection of ssagittal and coronal planes sagittal axis (Z- axis) anterior to posterior intersection of sagittal and transverse planes Uniaxial - allows movement in one axes, biaxial - two axes, multiaxial - multiple axes. Classification of the bones according to their shape Osteology theory topics/questions 1  Two types of bones: compact and spongy (trabecular or cancellous). Compact bone is dence and forms the outer shell of all bones, which surrounds the spongy bone. Spongy bone consists of spicules of bone eclosing cavities containing blood-forming cells (marrow). long bones - tubular e.g humerus, ulna, radius, femur, tibia, fibula short bones - cubodial e.g carpals, tarsals flat bones - two compact bone plates separated by spongy bone e.g. sternum, ribs, skull irregular bones - various shape e.g vertebrae, sacrum sesamoid bones - runded e.g patellla Classification of joints fibrous no joint cavity, connected to each other with ligaments e.g bones in the skull cartilaginous connected by cartilage (brusk), no joint cavity e.g vertebrae which is connected by intervertebral disks, pubic symphysis synnovial fluid filled joint cavity, allows free movement classified into several types e.g glenohumeral joint, acetabulofemoral joint, Solid joints classification Fibrous and cartilaginous joints. Dont have any joint cavity, limited movement. Usually connection between skeletal elemts linked together by Osteology theory topics/questions 2  fibrous connective tissue (bindevev) or cartilage, usually fibrocartilage (fibrøs brusk). fibrous joints - sutures, gomphoeses and syndesmoses sutures - only in the skull gomphoses - teeth syndesmoses - linked to each other with a ligament. e.g interosseus membrane between ulna and radius. cartilaginous joints - synchondroses (primary cartilaginous) and symphyses (secondary cartilaginous) synchondroses - temporary (may permanent) connection between bones, e.g between bones in development (as the skull) which eventually ossificate together during development symphyses - two separate bones connected through cartilage, e.g the two pubic bones (pubic symphyses), or intervertebral disks between adjecent vertebras, little movement Synovial joints classification plane (gliding) articulating surfaces are slighty curved/flat, allowing them to slide over each other, e.g. intercapals, zygophyseal joints movements: gliding/sliding, typically non-axial. pivot rounded surface of bone articulates with a ring formed bone by a ligament, e.g. atlantoaxial joint movement: uniaxial (rotation around a single axis) hinge convex surface of bone fits into the concave surface of another, like a hinge, allowing movement around one axis (uniaxial - flexion and extension) ball and socket a head fits into a cup- like socket of another. e.g. glenohumeral joint, acetabulofemoral joint. Osteology theory topics/questions 3  movements: multiaxial - flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, circumduction, rotation. saddle concave and convex articular surfaces, saddle shaped (like a horse saddle), e.g. sternoclavicular, carpometacarpal joint movement: movement in two axes, biaxial, flexion - extension, adduction - abduction, circumduction ellipsoid (condylar) oval shaped concyle fits into an ellipical cavity (slightly curved) of another, e.g. wrist joint, metacarpophalangeal joints movements: biaxial - flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, circumduction Basic elements of the synovial joint Synnovial joints are higly mobile joints, with elements such as the articulating bones dont necessary directly touch. Articular cartilage (hyaline) covers the bones of the joint - in between, filled with synnovial fluid, secreted from the membrane of the articular capsule which encloses the joint anterior and posteriorly. Ligaments support the joint to stay in place surrounding the joint externally. articular cartilage (which covers the bones of the joint, composed of hyaline cartilage, reduces friction etc) joint (synnoival) cavity with synovial fluid - the space in between the articulating bones synovial membrane - inner layer which secretes the synovial fluid for lubrication joint/articular capsule (double layered structure that encloses the joint cavity) ligaments intrinsic - within the joint capsule extrinsic - outside the joint capsule Accessory elements of the synovial joint Osteology theory topics/questions 4  Enchance the function of the joint. bursae (fluid filled sacs to reduce friction and cushioning) muscles (e.g. rotator cuff muscles) tendons fat pads (protects, e.g. intrapatellar fat pad) labrum (ring of fibrocartilage that deepens the articular surface of some joint, stability, e.g. glenohumeral, acetabulofemoral joint) menisci (fibrocartilage, absorp shock) Feature of the atlas The first cervical vertebra (C1), one of the three atypical vertebras, which articulates directly with the skull (atlantoocciptal joint). Supports the nodding movement “yes”. has no vertebral body big vertebral foramina no spinous process - replaced by posterior tubercle has a articulating facet for the dens of axis (C2) small in size transverse processes are bilateral small transverse foramina no intervertebral disk Features of the axis Second cervical vertebra (C2), one of the three atypical vertebras. Articulates with the atlas through the atlantoaxial joint. Enabling the “no” rotation motion. Dens of axis (superior structure, like a tip which articulates with the atlas) large superior articular facets for articulation with the atlas (C1) no vertebral disk superiorly Osteology theory topics/questions 5  lacks vertebral body large vertebral foramina robust body large bifid spinous process small transverse process. Features of the typical cervical vertebra C3-C6 (C7 some other features) small vertebral body (kidney-shaped) small bifid spinous processes C7 has a longer spinous process as it articulates with the T1 vertebra large triangular vertebral foramina short pedicles and lamina small transverse processes may be absent in C7 large transverse foramina where neurovaculature pass, spinal nerve through sulcus for spinal nerve. articular processes are superoposteriorly and anteroinferiorly anterior and posterior tubercles (muscle attachment points) enclose transverse foramen Features of the thoracic vertebra Consist of T1-T12, T2-T9 are typical - T1, T10, T11, T12 has some small differences in features. medium (heart- shaped) vertebral body long spinous processes (may almost touch adjacent vertebra inferiorly) small vertebral foramen large and strong transverse processes with costal facets/demifacets at T1-10 Osteology theory topics/questions 6  superior and inferior costal facets located on the vertebral bodies (articulating with the ribs) superior and inferior articular facets located in the coronal plane (for articulating with the adjacent vertebras T1, T10, T11-12 has some differences in the costal facets intervertebral disks Features of the lumbar vertebra L1-L5, largest and most weight- baring vertebras compared to their strucutre and body. L5 articulates with S1 by the lumbosacral joint. large (kidney- shaped body) small triangular shaped vertebral foramen short transverse processes short and wide pedicles mammilary processes accessory processes spinous process is short and broad, pointed downward Features of the sacral and coccygeal bone Sacrum consist of S1-S5, fused vertebras (developing from puberty-adult) in an half moon shape which articulates with the coccyx (Co1-3/5). Also known as the tale bone. vertebral body decreases from base to apex (superior - inferior) sacral canal (as its vertebral foramen) sacral hiatus anterior and posterior sacral foramina (allowing neurovascular structures to pass through, no transverse foramen) median sacral crest - fused spinous processes medial saral crest - fused transverse processes transverse lines are remnants of intervertebral disks Osteology theory topics/questions 7  sacral promotory - posterior margin of pelvic inlet superior articular facets articulate with L5 sacral articular facets (located superolateral) articulate with the ilium to form the pelvic girdle through the sacroiliac joint inferior articular facets (sacral cornu) articulates with the cocyx through the coccyoxegeal joint coccyx are 3-5 fused small vertebra consisting of an apex, base and coccygeal horns which articulates with S5. Synovial joints of the vertebral column plane joints zygapophyseal joints (facet joints) joints of the vertebral arches, formed between the superior and inferior articular processes of ajacent vertebras allow gliding movement, how much depending on the vertebral region lined by hyaline cartilage and joined by a thin articular capsule costovertebral joints costocorporeal and costotransverse joints costocorporeal is between the superior demifacet on the vertebral body and the head of the rib costotransverse is between the transverse costal facet on the vertbrae and the articular facets of tubercles of the ribs anterior sacroiliac joints the joints of the anterior articulations between the sacrum and ilium between the ear shaped facet of the sacrum and ilium, which is covered by hyaline articular cartilage. unlike other synovial joints, this is not so mobile, due to its irregular interlocking and stability posterior sacroiliac joint has cartilaginous syndesmoses Osteology theory topics/questions 8  lateral atlantoaxial joint inferior articular facets of atlas (C1) articulate with the superior articular facets of axis (C2), provides small gliding movement pivot joints antlanto-occipital joint formed between the superior articular facet of the atlas (C1) and the condyles of the occipital bone of the skull allwos flexion, extension and slight rotation (enabling the nodding “yes” motion pivot joints median atlantoaxial joint between the dens of axis (C2) and the anterior arch/dens fovea of the atlas (C1) providing rotation movement Atlantoaxial joint structure and possible movements (including ligaments with their attachments) Consists of medial and lateral atlantoaxial joints. Provide the rotating “no” movement. medial atlantoaxial joint: synovial pivot joint articulations: dens of axis (C2) and fovea of dens (C1) movements: provides slight rotation supported by transverse ligament lateral antalantoaxial joint: plane synovial joint between the inferior articular facets of axis (C2) and superior articular facets of atlas (C1) movements: sliding, small movements joint capsule surrounds Ligaments (mnemonic: Crazy Adults Always Talk About Much) cruriform ligament Osteology theory topics/questions 9  transverse ligament spans the lateral masses of atlas longitudinal bands superior and inferior bands: from transverse ligament to anterior margin of foramen magnum/posterior surface body of axis alar ligament sides of dens to medial occipital condyles ligament of the apex of dens/apicial ligament of dens apex of dens to anterior foramen magnum tectorial membrane posterior axis body to anterior foramen magnum atlantoaxial membrane (anterior and posterior) inferior border of anterior atlas arch - anterior axis body/superior axis laminae Syndesmoses of the vertebral column Fibrous joints where bones are connected together my ligaments or interosseus membranes. ligamentum flavum anterior longitudinal ligament posterior lonitudinal ligament interspinous ligament supraspinous ligament intertransverse ligaments nuchal ligament Synostoses of the vertebral column Fusion of two or more bones through ossification, either naturally or pathological. Natural synostoses: Osteology theory topics/questions 10  vertebra synostoses during embryonic development sacrum coccyx Pathological synostoses (due to trauma, disease, surgery) cronic inflammation surgery to stabilize spine trauma (fractures healing processes can lead to fusion) diseases in embryonic/fetal Features of the true rib Articulates both with the sternum directly anteriorly and the adjecent vertebra posteriorly. This includes ribs 1-7 (8-10 are false ribs, meaning articulating with the costal cartilage not the ribs) Features of the first and second rib 1st - wide and short, articulates with the 1st costal notch on the manubrium of sternum and T1 vertebrae. Groove for subclavian artery and vein. 2nd - thin and long, articulates with the 2nd costal notch at the sternal angle of the sternum and T2 vertebrae. Has a tuberosity for serratus anterior muscle on the superior surface. Features of the floating ribs Only articulates with costal cartilage at the costal arch/margin, no attachement at the vertebra column, “floating” posterior part of the ribs are supported by the muscles. Features of the sternum T-shaped vertical bone, forms the anterior portion of the chest wall. Most superior its the manubrium, a triangular formed which articulates with the clavicle bilaterally at the clavicular notch, and has the jugular notch most superiorly, and 1st costal notch at the more inferior bilateral sides. Through the manubriosternal joint it connects the manubrium with the sternum at the costal angle, 2nd costal notch is located here. On the body of the sterum is the remaing 5,5 costal notches on the bilateral sides (which articulate with the true ribs and their costal cartilage). Inferiorly the body of Osteology theory topics/questions 11  sternum articulates with the xiphoid process through the xiphisternal joint, the xiphoid process acts as a attachment point for linea alba and surface for some abdominal muscles. The sternum acts as an stabile attachment point and protection for the mediastinal organs posteriorly behind. Joints of the sternum manubriosternal and Xiphosternal joint Manubriosternal joint secondary cartilanginous joint (symphysis) between the manubrium and body of sternum covered by hyaline cartilage and separated by a fibrocartilaginous disc allowing slight movement for expiration anterior: manjbriosternal ligament Xhipsternal joint primary cartilanginous joint (synchondrosis) between the body of sternum and xiphoid process typically litte movement, and may ossificate and become synostosis by age no movement Superior aperture of the thorax The superior opening of the thoracic wall/ribcage) which opens towards the neck. Also called the thoracic inlet. Allows passage for structures between the thorax and the neck. Boundaries: Anterior: manubrium of sternum Posterior: body of T1 vertebrae Lateral: 1st pair of ribs with their costal cartilages Inferior aperture of the thorax Osteology theory topics/questions 12  The inferior opening of the thoracic wall/ribcage. Is almost completely covered by the diaphragm, separating it from the abdominal cavity with openings for structures to pass through. Also called the thoracic outlet. Boundaries: Anterior: xiphisternal joint Posterior: body of T12 vertebrae Lateral: costal cartilages of ribs 7-10 (that form the costal arch) Posterolateral: tips of 11th and 12th (floating) ribs Joints of the thorax zygaphopyseal (facet joints) costovertebral joints costochondral joints sternocostal joints sternoclavicular joints manubrosternal joint xiphsternal joint interchondral joints Costovertebral joints structure and possible movements(including ligaments with their attachments) Synovial facet joints. Fasilitate lifting the ribs up and outwards during breathing. costocorporeal and costotransverse joints between the superior costal demifacet and head of adjacent ribs ligaments: radiate ligament of the head of the rib (surrounds the head of the rib with fibres superior, horixontal and inferior on the vertebral body around intra- articular ligament of the head of the rib crest of the ribs head to the intervertebral disk Osteology theory topics/questions 13  between the ribs and the adjacent vertebra between the trasnverse costal demifacets and the adjacent costal tubercle of the rib ligaments: costotransverse ligament transverse process to the ribs neck superior costotransverse ligament superior part ribs neck to inferior surface of the transverse process to vertebra above) lateral costotransverse ligament tip of transverse process with the lateral, non-articular part of the ribs tubercle Sternocostal joints structure and possible movements(including ligaments with their attachments) Between the ribs and the sternum directly through their adjacent costal cartilage (ribs 1-7). 1st rib doesnt permit any movement, ribs 2-7 slight gliding movement and expansion of the rib cage during inhalation. Ligaments: radiate sternocostal ligament from the anterior and posterior surfaces of the costal cartilages to the anterior and posterior surfaces of the sternum intra-articular sternocostal ligament attaches the 2nd costal cartilage to the fibrocartilage of the manubriosternal joint Costochondral joint structure Between the bony rib and costal cartilage. Primary cartilaginous joints (synchondroses). Hyalin cartilage connects the rib to its costal cartilage. Allowing slight movement for respiration. Osteology theory topics/questions 14  Interchondral joint structure Between the cartilage of the last true rib and the cartilage of the false ribs. Synovial, plane joints. Costal cartilages 7-10 form the costal margin. Ribs 6- 9 are synnovial with a joint cavity and membrane, ribs 9-10 its often fibrous and less mobile joints. Interchondral ligaments strengthens the joints. Structure of bones of the shoulder girdle clavicle and scapula Clavicle (collarbone) The S-shaped long bone that lies horizontally at the base of the neck, which connects the upper limb to the axial skeleton at the sternum. Protects neurovascular structures passing beneath. Transmits forces from the upper limb to the axial skeleton. Ends: The sternal (medial) end articulates with the manubrium of the sternum at the sternoclavicular joint. Acromial (lateral) end articulates with the acromion of the scapula at the acromioclavicular joint. Shaft Superior surface: smooth and lies under the skin Inferior surface: attachment for the coracoclavicular ligament and subclavius muscle Scapula (shoulder blade) Flat triangular-shaped bone on the posterior thoracic wall, extending from a level of ribs 2-7. Serves as a site for muscle attachment and facilitates arm movement. Borders (superior, medial, lateral): Serve as attachment points for muscles Angles (anterior, lateral, inferior) Osteology theory topics/questions 15  Surfaces (anterior - subscapular, posterior - supraspinous, infraspinous fossa) Provides attachment points for muscles Processes: Acromion: lateral projection of the scapular spine articulates with the clavicle at the acromioclavicular joint Coracoid process: hook-like projection at the anterior surface, muscle attachment, and attachment for coracoacromial and coracoclavicular ligament Scapular spine: Prominent ridge on the posterior surface which divides the supraspinous and infraspinous fossa Glenoid cavity: Shallow depression on the lateral angle of the scapula (superolateral to coracoid process, superomedial to acromion) Articulates with the head of the humerus to form the glenohumeral joint Other: Supraglenoid and infraglenoid tubercle: attachment point for muscles Sternoclavicular joint structure and possible movements (including ligaments with their attachments) Saddle synovial joint, permitting gliding. Articulating surfaces: sternal end of the clavicle clavicular notches of the manubrium of sternum superior surface of the first costal cartilage intra- articular disk (of clavicular notches?) Osteology theory topics/questions 16  Ligaments: anterior and posterior sternoclavicular ligaments (insintric) anterior and posterior surface of the sternal end of the clavicle to the anterior and superior part of the manubrium costoclavicular ligament inferior surface sternal end clavicle to the superior surface first ribs costal cartilage interclavicular ligament deep fascia to the sternal ends of both clavicles spanning the jugular notch Movements: Biaxial joint. elevation and depression protraction and retraction Acromioclavicular joint structure and possible movements (including ligaments with their attachments) Plane synovial joint, permitting gliding. Articular surfaces: acromion of scapula acromial end of clavicle Ligaments: acromioclavicular ligament (superior and inferior) superior/inferior surface of the acromion to the acromial end of the clavicle coracoclavicular ligament (trapezoid and coronoid part) between the coracoid process of scapula and acromial end of calvicle the trapezoid and coronoid part enclose a triangular space which is filled with a pad of adipose tissue/bursa. Movements: Osteology theory topics/questions 17  Multiaxial joint. protraction and retraction elevation and depression axial rotation Features of the humerus The longest and largest bone of the upper limb. Contains a proximal end, a shaft, and a distal end. The rounded proximal end with the head articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula to form the shoulder joint, and the distal trochlea and capitulum articulates with the ulna and radius to form the elbow joint. It contains several structures that act as attachment points for ligaments and muscles. And facilitate movements such as flexing and rotating the arm. Clinical: the surgical neck below the tubercles is a common fraction site. Proximal end (near the shoulder) Head of humerus Anatomical neck Greater and lesser tubercle Bicipital groove Surgical neck Shaft of humerus Deltoid tuberosity Radial groove Nutrient foramen Distal end (near elbow) Medial and lateral epicondyle Trochlea Capitulum Olecranon fossa, coronoid fossa and radial fossa Shoulder joint structure and possible movements (including ligaments with their attachments) Osteology theory topics/questions 18  Also called the glenohumeral joint, is a synovial ball-and-socket joint which is the most mobile joint in the body. Articulating surfaces: Head of the humerus: forms the ball of the joint The glenoid cavity of the scapula: forms the socket of the joint Glenoid labrum: fibrocartilaginous rim that deepens the glenoid cavity and improves stability The joint capsule attaches proximally to the margin of the glenoid cavity and distally to the anatomical neck of the humerus, synovial membrane lines the inner surface of the joint capsule and secretes synovial fluid for lubrication. Ligaments Coracohumeral ligament (attaches from the base of the coracoid process to the greater tubercle of the humerus) Glenohumeral ligaments: superior, medial, inferior (attaches from the glenoid cavity to the lesser tubercle and anatomical neck of the humerus) Transverse humeral ligament (spans the intertubercular groove of the humerus) Coracoacromial ligament (attaches between the coracoid process and the acromion Movements Flexion and extension (sagittal plane) Abduction and adduction (coronal plane) Internal and external rotation (transverse plane) Circumduction (a combination of all movements, forming a circular motion) Accessory elements of the shoulder joint Structures that support, stabilize and enhance the function of the shoulder joint. Rotator cuff muscles Osteology theory topics/questions 19  Bursae (fluid-filled sacs to reduce friction) Glenoid labrum Tendons of the long head of biceps brachii (stabilize the head of the humerus during movements) Features of the ulna Long bone located on the medial aspect of the forearm (from the anatomical position so the side of the little finger). It is broader proximally and narrows distally. Proximal end: Olecranon Large, curved projection at the posterior proximal end which forms the bony prominence of the elbow, and is a attachment site for muscles Coronoid process: Fits into the coronoid fossa during elbow flexion Trochlear notch: Articulates with the trochlea of the humerus forming the hinge joint of the elbow Radial notch: Articulates with the head of the radius to form the proximal radioulnar joint Shaft: Triangular cross section with three borders: Anterior : attachment for muscles Posterior: subcutaneous and palpable Interosseus border: attachment for interosseous membrane which connects the ulna to the radius Distal end: Head of the ulna: Rounded, smaller distal end Osteology theory topics/questions 20  Articulates with the ulnar notch of the radius at the distal radioulnar joint Styloid process: Pointed projection on the posterior side of the ulna Attachment point for the ulnar collateral ligament of the wrist Features of the radius The lateral forearm bone (in the anatomical position, same side as the thumb). It is narrow proximally and broad distally, opposite to the ulna. Proximal end: Head of radius: Articulates with the capitulum of the humerus and the radial notch of the ulna Allows rotation during pronation and supination Neck of radius: Attachment for annular ligament Radial tuberosity: Attachment for muscles Shaft: Anterior border: for muscle attachment Posterior border: muscle attachment Interosseus border: faces the ulna and serves attachment for the interosseous membrane Distal end: Ulnar notch: articulates with the head of ulna at the distal radioulnar joint Styloid process: Attachment for radial collateral ligament of the wrist Dorsal tubercle: Osteology theory topics/questions 21  Muscle attachment Carpal articular surface: Articulates with the scaphoid and lunate bones to form the wrist joint Interosseus membrane attachemnts Fibrous sheet of connective tissue that connects the radius and ulna along their respective shafts. Provides stability and a surface for muscle attachment. Oblique fibres run inferior and medially from the radius to the ulna, and has openings (apertures) for passage of neurovascular structures. Proximal attachment of the membrane Medial border (interosseous border) of the radius, just below the radial tuberosity and continues distally Distal attachment of the membrane Lateral border (interosseous border) of the ulna, begins near the radial notch and extends towards the distal shaft Elbow joint structure and possible movements (including ligaments with their attachments) Consist of three articulations between the bones humerus, radius and ulna, enclosed within a single joint capsule. Humeroulnar joint Structure: Hinge joint (synovial joint) Articulating surfaces: Trochlea of the humerus → medial side Trochlear notch of the ulna Ligaments: Ulnar collateral ligament: medial epicondyle of humerus to coronoid process of the ulna Triangular shape with an inferior, posterior and inferior band → provides stability on the medial side Osteology theory topics/questions 22  Movements: Flexion and extension (uniaxial) Humeroradial joint Structure: Gliding or ball-and-socket joint (synovial joint) Articulating surfaces: Capitulum of the humerus → lateral side Head of the radius Ligaments: Proximal radioulnar joint: Annular ligament of radius: encircles the head of the radius, attached to the anterior and posterior margin of the radial notch of ulna → provides stability on the lateral side Movements: Flexion and extension (uniaxial) Radioulnar proximal joint Structure: Pivot joint (synovial joint) Articulating surfaces: Head of the radius Radial notch of the ulna Encircled by the annular ligament Ligaments: Annular ligament: Holds the radial head in place and allows rotation Interosseous membrane (not directly part of the joint but provides stability between radius and ulna) Osteology theory topics/questions 23  Movements: Pronation and supination (uniaxial) Type of joints creating a elbow joint The elbow is the joint connecting the upper arm to the forearm. It is classed as a hinge-type synovial joint. The elbow joint is a complex hinge joint formed by the articulation of three bones; the humerus, radius, and ulna. It consists of three types of joints within a single joint capsule: Humeroulnar joint Humeroradial joint Proximal radioulnar joint Together, these joints enable: Hinge Movements: Flexion and extension (humeroulnar and humeroradial joints). Rotational Movements: Pronation and supination (proximal radioulnar joint). Structure of the radioulnar distal joint and possible movements (including ligaments with their attachments) Synovial, uniaxial pivot joint in the distal end of the radius and ulna. Articular surfaces: Distal head of ulna Ulnar notch of radius Ligaments: Triangular fibrocartilage complex (mnemonic: “A Dirty Unicorn Plays Bare Under U)” Articular disc of distal radioulnar joint: ulnar notch of radius to styloid process ulna) Dorsal radioulnar ligament (posterior ulnar notch of radius - posterior head ulna) Osteology theory topics/questions 24  Ulnar collateral ligament (styloid process of ulna - triquetrium and pisiform) Palmar radioulnar ligament (anterior ulnar notch of radius - anterior head ulna) Base of extensor carpi ulnaris sheath Ulnolunate ligament (styloid process of ulna - lunate) Ulnotriquetral ligaments (styloid process of ulna - lunate and triquetrum) Movements: Pronation and supination Carpal bones' characteristics and pattern The carpal bones are a group of eight irregularly shaped bones. They are organized into two rows – proximal and distal The carpal bones collectively form an arch in the coronal plane. A membranous band, the flexor retinaculum, spans between the medial and lateral edges of the arch, forming the carpal tunnel. Structures pass through the carpal tunnel to enter and exit the volar (anterior) aspect of the hand. Bones of the proximal row of the wrist Scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform (from lateral to medial) Bones of the proximal row of the wrist Trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate (lateral to medial) Structure of the radiocarpal joint and possible movements (including ligaments with their attachments) Synovial ellipsoid joint between the radius and the proximal three carpal bones: scaphoid, lunate and triquetral bones. Considered to be the only articular component of the wrist joint. Enclosed by a two layer joint capsule, outer fibrous connective tissue and inner Osteology theory topics/questions 25  synovial membrane. Articular surfaces: (Proximal component): distal end of radius, articular disc (Distal component): scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum bones (also include triangular fibrocartilage complex) Ligaments: Palmar radiocarpal ligaments (anterior margin distal radius - palmar surface scaphoid, lunate, capitate bones) Dorsal radiocarpal ligament (posterior margin distal radius - dorsal surface scaphoid, lunate, capitate bones) Ulnar collateral ligament (styloid process ulna - medial aspect triquetrum and pisiform bones) Radial collateral ligament (styloid process of radius - lateral scaphoid and trapezium) Movements: Flexion and extension Adduction and abduction Intercarpal joints structure The intercarpal joints are the articulations between adjacent carpal bones within the same carpal row. Plane, synovial joints. Articulating surfaces: Proximal row: between the scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, and pisiform: Distal row: between the trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate Ligaments: Interosseous Ligaments: connect adjacent carpal bones. Dorsal and Palmar Intercarpal Ligaments: reinforce the joint capsule and stabilize the intercarpal joints. Pisohamate and Pisometacarpal Ligaments:Connect the pisiform to the hamate and the base of the fifth metacarpal. Movements: Osteology theory topics/questions 26  Gliding Mediocarpal joint structure Plane, synovial joints, the articulation between the proximal and distal carpal rows. Continuous joint capsule with the intercarpal joints. Articulating Surfaces: Proximal: Scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum. Distal: Trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate. Ligaments: Palmar Midcarpal Ligaments: reinforce the joint capsule on the palmar side Dorsal Midcarpal Ligaments:reinforce the joint capsule on the dorsal side Interosseous Ligaments: stabilize the articulation between the proximal and distal rows. Movements: Flexion, extension, deviations Ligaments of the wrist Mnemonic: “Rare Underwear Parties Unleash Freaky Raw Urges” radiocarpal collateral ligament ulnocarpal collateral ligament radiocarpal palmar ligament ulnocarpal palmar ligament flexor retinaculum (transverse carpal ligament) radiocarpal dorsal ligament unocarrpal dorsal ligament Osteology theory topics/questions 27  Features of the metacarpal bones The metacarpals are five long bones connecting the carpal bones to the proximal phalanges. Each has: Base: Proximally articulates with the carpal bones and adjacent metacarpals. Shaft: Cylindrical and slightly concave on the palmar side; attachment site for intrinsic hand muscles. Head : Distally articulates with the proximal phalanges, forming the metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joints. Carpometacarpal joint of the thumb structure and possible movements (including ligaments with their attachments) CMC Joint I, saddle synovial joint. Articulating Surfaces: The trapezium articulates with the base of the 1st metacarpal. Ligaments: Anterior Oblique Ligament: From the trapezium to the palmar base of the 1st metacarpal, resists hyperextension. Posterior Oblique Ligament: From the dorsal trapezium to the dorsal base of the 1st metacarpal, resists hyperflexion Radial Collateral Ligament: From the trapezium to the lateral base of the 1st metacarpal, stabilizes laterally. Ulnar Collateral Ligament: From the trapezium to the medial base of the 1st metacarpal, stabilizes medially. Movements: Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, and opposition (a combination of flexion, abduction, and medial rotation). Carpometacarpal joints II to V structure and possible movements (including ligaments with their attachments) Osteology theory topics/questions 28  CMC Joints II-V. Articulating Surfaces: The bases of the 2nd to 5th metacarpals articulate with the trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate. Ligaments: Dorsal Carpometacarpal ligaments: dorsal surfaces of distal row carpal bones - dorsal bases II-V metacarpals Palmar Carpometacarpal Ligaments: palmar surface carpal bones - palmar base II-V metacarpals Intermetacarpal Ligaments: Connect adjacent metacarpal bases II-V Movements: Minimal movement in the 2nd and 3rd joints for stability. Slight flexion and rotation in the 4th and 5th joints for a stronger power grip. Features of the proximal, middle and distal phalanx Each phalanx has: Base: Proximal articulation with the preceding bone. Shaft: Cylindrical and slightly concave on the palmar side. Head : Distal articulation with the next phalanx. The distal phalanx ends in a roughened area for fingernail attachment. Metacarpophalangeal joint of the thumb structure and possible movements (including ligaments with their attachments) MCP Joint I, condyloid synovial joint. Articulating Surfaces: The head of the 1st metacarpal articulates with the base of the proximal phalanx of the thumb. Ligaments: Osteology theory topics/questions 29  Collateral Ligaments: Attach from sides metacarpal head to the proximal phalanx, stabilizing laterally. Palmar Plate: anterior surface metacarpal head to base of proximal phalanx on palmar side Movements: Flexion, extension, and minimal abduction/adduction. Metacarpophalangeal joints II to V structure and possible movements (including ligaments with their attachments) MCP Joints II-V, condyloid synovial joints. Articulating Surfaces: Heads of the metacarpals articulate with the bases of the proximal phalanges. Ligaments: Collateral Ligaments: lateral and medial sides metacarpals head to lateral and medial sides of the proximal phalangeal bases Palmar Plates: anterior surface metacarpal head to base of proximal phalanx on palmar side Deep Transverse Metacarpal Ligament: Connects adjacent palmar plates. Movements: Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, and circumduction. Interphalangeal proximal and joints and possible movements (including ligaments with their attachments) Synovial hinge joints. Articulating Surfaces: Heads of the proximal or middle phalanges articulate with the bases of the middle or distal phalanges. Ligaments: Collateral Ligaments: Attach to the sides of the phalangeal heads to bases, providing lateral stability. Osteology theory topics/questions 30  Palmar Plates: anterior surface metacarpal head to base of proximal phalanx on palmar side Movements: Flexion and extension. Carpal tunnel boundaries and content, flexor retinaculum The flexor retinaculum (transverse carpal ligament) and carpal tunnel. Boundaries: Anterior: Flexor retinaculum Posterior: Carpal bones The carpal tunnel transmits 9 tendons: 4 tendons of the flexor digitorum superficialis 4 tendons of the flexor digitorum profundus Tendon of the flexor pollicis longus Median nerve Pelvic girdle bones structure The pelvic girdle is formed by the two hip bones (ossa coxae), the sacrum, and the coccyx. Each hip bone consists of three fused bones: the ilium, ischium, and pubis. Function: weight-bearing and ambulation, landmarks, labor and delivery. Ilium: Osteology theory topics/questions 31  Superior part of the hip bone. Features: Iliac crest, ASIS, PSIS, greater sciatic notch, and auricular surface (articulates with the sacrum). Ischium: Posteroinferior part. Features: Ischial spine, lesser sciatic notch, ischial tuberosity (sitting bone), and ischial ramus. Pubis: Anterior part. Features: Pubic body, superior and inferior pubic rami, pubic crest, and pubic tubercle. Acetabulum: Lateral socket formed by the ilium, ischium, and pubis. Articulates with the femoral head to form the hip joint. Obturator Foramen: Large opening formed by the pubis and ischium for nerve and vessel passage. Sacrum and coccyx: Inferior part of the vertebral column, connected with the pelvic bones though the sacroiliac joints Dimensions of the pelvis 1. External dimensions of the pelvis Measurement taken from the bony landmarks on the outside of the pelvis, which also can be used to estimate internal dimension. Intercristal distance – the distance between both iliac crests 28 – 29 cm. Interspinous distance – the distance between both anterior superior iliac spines 25 – 26 cm. Intertrochanteric distance – the distance between both greater trochanters 31 – 32 cm. Osteology theory topics/questions 32  External conjugate – the distance between upper margin of pubic symphysis and the spinous process of correct ≥ 20 cm. (19 cm – little shorter < 19 cm – shorter). Oblique external diameter: right – distance between the right posterior superior iliac spine and left anterior superior iliac spine. Correct it is 22 cm. left – distance between the left posterior superior iliac spine and right anterior superior iliac spine. Correct it is 21,5 cm 2. Internal dimensions of the pelvis Measurements inside the pelvic cavity, critical for evaluating the birth canal during labor. Anatomical conjugate – the distance between the promontory and the upper margin of pubic symphysis, 11,5 cm. True conjugate – the distance between promontory and retropubic eminence (0,5 cm lower than promontory) 11 cm Diagonal conjugate - distance between the promotory and the inferior margin of pubic symphysis, 12,5 - 13 cm Straight diameter of the amplitudo pelvis – distance between middle part of pubic symphysis and intervertebral disc between S2 – S3 vertebra 12,0 - 12,5 cm. Straight diameter of the angustia pelvis - distance between the lowest part of pubic symphysis and the apex of sacral bone, 11 cm. Straight diameter of the pelvic outlet distance between the lowest part of pubic symphysis and the apex of coccyx, 9,5 cm. Pelvis axis connects central points of all straight diameters of the pelvic planes. Transverse diameter of the amplitudo pelvis– Interacetabular diameter distance between the central points of acetabulum of both sides, 12 cm. Transverse diameter of the angustia pelvis – (ischial interspinous diameter) – distance between both ischial spines,10,5 cm. Osteology theory topics/questions 33  Transverse diameter of the pelvic outlet – (ischial intertuberous distance – distance between both ischial tuberosities, 11 – 12 cm. Transverse diameter of the pelvic inlet – distance between terminal line of both sides, 13 cm. Oblique diameter of the pelvic inlet – distance between sacroiliac joint on one side to the iliopubic eminence on the other side, 12,5 cm. Pelvic planes and spaces Pelvic Planes: Pelvic Inlet Boundaries: Linea terminalis Amplitudo pelvis Pelvic plane with the largest dimensions Boundaries: Middle part of pubic symphysis Central point of acetabulum Osteology theory topics/questions 34  Intervertebral disc between S2-S3 vertebra Augustia pelvis Pelvic plane with the smallest dimensions Boundaries: Inferior margin of the pubic symphysis Ischial spine Apex of the sacral bone Pelvic Outlet Consist of 2 planes Boundaries: Inferior margin of the pubic symphysis Ischial tuberosity Apex of the coccyx Pelvic spaces: Greater Pelvis (False Pelvis): Above the pelvic inlet. Contains abdominal organs like the intestines. Lesser Pelvis (True Pelvis): Below the pelvic inlet, start from linea terminalis. bounded by the pelvic cavity walls. Contains pelvic organs (e.g., bladder, rectum, uterus in females). Osteology theory topics/questions 35  Structure of the hip bone The hip bone (os coxae) is a large, irregularly shaped bone that forms part of the pelvic girdle. It consists of three fused bones: the ilium, ischium, and pubis, which meet at the acetabulum, the socket that articulates with the femoral head to form the hip joint. The ilium is the superior, fan-shaped portion of the hip bone, featuring the iliac crest, anterior and posterior iliac spines, and the auricular surface, which articulates with the sacrum at the sacroiliac joint. The ischium forms the posteroinferior part of the hip bone and includes the ischial spine, ischial tuberosity (the "sitting bone"), and the lesser sciatic notch. The pubis constitutes the anterior part of the hip bone, comprising the pubic body, superior and inferior rami, and the pubic symphysis, where the two hip bones unite. The acetabulum is a cup-shaped cavity on the lateral side of the hip bone that serves as the socket for the hip joint, while the obturator foramen , a large opening formed by the ischium and pubis, allows for the passage of the obturator nerve and vessels. Together, the hip bone contributes to the structure and stability of the pelvis, supports body weight, and provides attachment sites for numerous muscles. Syndesmoses of the pelvis Syndesmoses are fibrous joints where bones are connected by ligaments or membranes, providing stability with limited movement. Sacrotuberous Ligament: Connects the sacrum and coccyx to the ischial tuberosity. Converts the lesser sciatic notch into the lesser sciatic foramen. Sacrospinous Ligament: Connects the sacrum and coccyx to the ischial spine. Converts the greater sciatic notch into the greater sciatic foramen. Osteology theory topics/questions 36  Interosseous Sacroiliac Ligament: Located between the sacrum and ilium. Provides strong stability to the sacroiliac joint. Obturator Membrane: Covers the obturator foramen, leaving a small obturator canal for vessels and nerves. Features of the iliac bone The ilium/iliac bone is the largest and most superior portion of the hip bone. Iliac Crest: Superior ridge, palpable and prominent. Anterior Superior Iliac Spine (ASIS): Anterior end of the iliac crest; site for muscle and ligament attachment. Anterior Inferior Iliac Spine (AIIS): Below the ASIS, attachment site for the rectus femoris muscle. Posterior Superior Iliac Spine (PSIS): Posterior end of the iliac crest. Posterior Inferior Iliac Spine (PIIS): Below the PSIS, near the greater sciatic notch. Auricular Surface: Articulates with the sacrum at the sacroiliac joint. Greater Sciatic Notch: Allows passage of the sciatic nerve and associated structures. Features of the ischial bone The ischium forms the posteroinferior part of the hip bone. Body of the Ischium: Contributes to the acetabulum. Ischial Spine: A bony projection between the greater and lesser sciatic notches. Lesser Sciatic Notch: Passageway for nerves and vessels. Ischial Tuberosity: Large, roughened area; serves as the "sitting bone" and attachment site for hamstring muscles. Ramus of the Ischium: Extends toward the inferior pubic ramus. Features of the pubic bone Osteology theory topics/questions 37  The pubis forms the anterior portion of the hip bone. Body of the Pubis: Contributes to the pubic symphysis. Superior Pubic Ramus: Extends toward the acetabulum. Inferior Pubic Ramus: Joins the ischial ramus to form the ischiopubic ramus. Pubic Crest: Ridge running along the superior border of the body. Pubic Tubercle: Small prominence at the lateral end of the pubic crest. Features of the femur The femur is the longest and strongest bone in the body, forming the thigh. Its proximal end includes the head, which articulates with the acetabulum of the hip bone, and the neck, which connects the head to the shaft. The greater trochanter (lateral) and lesser trochanter (medial) serve as muscle attachment sites. The shaft is slightly curved and features the linea aspera on its posterior surface for muscle attachment. The distal end includes the medial and lateral condyles, which articulate with the tibia at the knee joint, and the patellar surface, which articulates with the patella. Structure of the hip joint and possible movements (including ligaments with their attachments) The hip joint is a synovial ball-and-socket joint formed by the articulation of the head of the femur with the lunate surface of the acetabulum of the hip bone. It is surrounded by a strong joint capsule and reinforced by ligaments: Iliofemoral Ligament: From the anterior inferior iliac spine (AIIS) to the intertrochanteric line; prevents hyperextension. Pubofemoral Ligament: From the pubic bone to the intertrochanteric line; prevents excessive abduction. Ischiofemoral Ligament: From the ischium to the posterior femoral neck; stabilizes the joint posteriorly. Ligament of the Head of the Femur: fovea capitis to acetabular notch Transverse ligament of acetabulum: acetabular foramen Osteology theory topics/questions 38  Zona orbicularis/annular ligament of neck of femur: form a collar around the femoral neck, no bony attachments Movements: flexion, extension abduction, adduction medial rotation, lateral rotation circumduction. Accessory elements of the hip joint Acetabular Labrum: Fibrocartilaginous rim that deepens the acetabulum and enhances stability. Transverse Acetabular Ligament: Completes the acetabular rim inferiorly. Fat Pad: Located in the acetabular fossa, providing cushioning. Bursae Bursae: Reduce friction around tendons and ligaments near the joint. Features of the tibia The tibia, or shinbone, is the larger medial bone of the leg. The proximal end features the medial and lateral condyles, which articulate with the femoral condyles at the knee joint, and the tibial tuberosity, where the patellar ligament attaches. The shaft has an anterior border (sharp and palpable), and the distal end includes the medial malleolus, which forms part of the ankle joint. Features of the fibula The fibula is the slender lateral bone of the leg, primarily for muscle attachment and ankle joint stability. Its proximal end articulates with the tibia at the proximal tibiofibular joint. The shaft is thin and provides attachment for muscles. The distal end forms the lateral malleolus, which contributes to the ankle joint and stabilizes the talus. Structure of the knee joint and possible movements (including ligaments with their attachments) Osteology theory topics/questions 39  The knee joint is the largest synovial joint of the human body. Its a complex synovial joint that conncects three bones, the femur, tibia and patella, which together form a pair of articulations: Tibiofemoral joint (synnovial hinge joint) Patellofemoral joint (plane joint) Bicondylar/ellipsiod joint. Ligaments with attachments: Patellar ligament: apex of patella to tibial tuberosity Anterior cruciate ligament ACL: lateral femoral condyle to anterior intercondylar area of tibia Posterior cruciate ligament PCL: medial femoral condyle to posterior intercondylar area of fibia Medial/Tibial collateral ligament: medial epicondyle of femur to medial tibial condyle and medial meniscus Lateral/Fibular collateral ligament: lateral epicondyle of femur to head of fibula Meniscofemoral ligaments (anterior and posterior) posterior lateral surfae of the medial femoral condyle to the posterior horn of the lateral meniscus Transverse ligament of the knee anterior horn of the medial mediscus to anterior horn lateral meniscus Arcuate popliteal ligament posterior aspect fibular head to posterior capsule of knee joint Oblique popliteal ligament lateral femoral condyle to posterior tibial condyle Osteology theory topics/questions 40  Lateral patellar retinaculum quadriceps tendon, ilitobial band, lateral vastus muscle fibers to lateral border patella and lateral tibial condyle Medial patellar retinaculum quadriceps tendon and vastus medialis fibers to medial border patella and medial tibial condyle Movements: Flexion Extension Medial rotation 10 degree Lateral rotation 30 degree Accessory elements of the knee joint Enhance its stability and function: Menisci: Crescent-shaped fibrocartilages (medial and lateral menisci) that sit between the femoral condyles and the tibial plateau. Function: Improve congruence between joint surfaces, absorb shock, and distribute weight. Bursae: Fluid-filled sacs reducing friction in areas of high movement. Suprapatellar bursa, prepatellar bursa, infrapatellar bursa, and pes anserinus bursa. Infrapatellar Fat Pad: A cushion of fat located beneath the patella and patellar ligament. Function: Absorbs shock and protects the anterior knee structures. Patellar Ligament: Osteology theory topics/questions 41  Continuation of the quadriceps tendon, extending from the patella to the tibial tuberosity. Structure of the joint of the head of the fibula and possible movements (including ligaments with their attachments) The joint of the head of the fibula is a proximal tibiofibular joint, classified as a plane synovial joint. Joint capsule surrounds the joint, lined with synovial membrane. Articulating Surfaces: The flat facet of the fibular head articulates with the lateral condyle of the tibia. Ligaments: Anterior Ligament of the Head of the Fibula: Attachments: Fibular head to the lateral condyle of the tibia (anteriorly). Function: Stabilizes the anterior aspect of the joint. Posterior Ligament of the Head of the Fibula: Attachments: Fibular head to the lateral condyle of the tibia (posteriorly). Function: Stabilizes the posterior aspect of the joint. Movements: Limited gliding movements occur, allowing slight adjustments during ankle and knee motion. The interosseus membrane of the leg A strong fibrous sheet that connects the shafts of the tibia and fibula. It plays a crucial role in maintaining stability and providing attachment for muscles. Features of the tarsal bones The tarsal bones are seven irregularly shaped bones located in the foot's posterior and midfoot regions. They form the ankle and contribute to the foot's arches and weight-bearing function. The tarsal bones consists of: Osteology theory topics/questions 42  Calcaneus: largest tarsal bone, as known as the heel bone. Talus: bone that connects the foot to the leg, forming the lower part of the joint. Navicular: a boat-shaped bone in front of the talus, on the medial side of the foot. Cuboid: a cube-shaped bone on the lateral side of the foot, in front of the calcaneus. Medial cuneiform: the largest of the three cuneiform bones, located on the medial side. Intermediate cuneiform: the smallest cuneiform bone, between the medial and lateral cuneiforms. Lateral cuneiform: the cuneiform bone located between the cuboid and intermediate cuneiform. Structure of the ankle joint and possible movements (including ligaments with their attachments) The ankle joint (talocrural joint) is a synovial hinge joint that connects the leg to the foot. Joint capsule is thin anteriorly and posteriorly, reinforced by ligaments on the sides. Articulating Surfaces: Articular facet of medial malleolus (tibia), articular facet of lateral malleolus (fibula), trochlea of talus, medial/lateral malleolar facets (talus) Ligaments: Medial (Deltoid) Ligament: Attachments: Proximal: Medial malleolus. Distal: Navicular bone, sustentaculum tali of the calcaneus, and talus. Function: Stabilizes against eversion. Lateral Ligaments: Anterior Talofibular Ligament (ATFL): Osteology theory topics/questions 43  From the lateral malleolus to the talus (anterior). Posterior Talofibular Ligament (PTFL): From the lateral malleolus to the talus (posterior). Calcaneofibular Ligament: From the lateral malleolus to the calcaneus. Function: Resists inversion. Movements: Dorsiflexion and plantarflexion Structure of the talocalcaneonavicular joint and possible movements (including ligaments with their attachments) The talocalcaneonavicular joint is a ball-and-socket synovial joint formed between the talus, calcaneus, and navicular bones. Articulating Surfaces: Head of the talus articulates with: Posterior surface of the navicular. Superior surface of the plantar calcaneonavicular ligament (spring ligament). Sustentaculum tali of the calcaneus. Ligaments: Plantar Calcaneonavicular (Spring) Ligament: Attachments: Sustentaculum tali to the plantar surface of the navicular bone. Function: Supports the talar head and maintains the medial longitudinal arch. Talonavicular Ligament: Attachments: Dorsal talus to dorsal navicular bone. Function: Stabilizes the joint dorsally. Osteology theory topics/questions 44  Movements: Inversion/Eversion: Combined movement with the subtalar joint. Adduction/Abduction: Contributes to foot supination and pronation. Structure of the calcaneocuboid joint and possible movements (including ligaments with their attachments) The calcaneocuboid joint is a plane synovial joint that connects the calcaneus to the cuboid. Articulating Surfaces: Anterior surface of the calcaneus articulates with the posterior surface of the cuboid. Ligaments: Long Plantar Ligament: From the calcaneus to the cuboid and bases of the 2nd–4th metatarsals. Function: Supports the lateral longitudinal arch. Short Plantar Ligament (Plantar Calcaneocuboid Ligament): Calcaneus to the plantar cuboid.. Dorsal Calcaneocuboid Ligament: Calcaneus to the dorsal cuboid. Movements: Inversion/Eversion: Works with the talonavicular joint as part of the transverse tarsal joint complex. Structure of the cuneocuboid, cubonavicular, and cuneonavicular joints and possible movements (including ligaments with their attachments) These joints are plane synovial joints that connect the distal tarsal bones. Articulating Surfaces: Cuneocuboid Joint: Articulation between the cuboid and lateral cuneiform. Cubonavicular Joint: Articulation between the cuboid and navicular. Osteology theory topics/questions 45  Cuneonavicular Joint: Articulations between the navicular and the three cuneiforms. Ligaments: Dorsal Ligaments: Connect the bones dorsally (e.g., dorsal cuneonavicular ligament). Plantar Ligaments: Reinforce the plantar aspect of the joints. Interosseous Ligaments: Connect adjacent bones internally for added stability. Movements: Minimal gliding movements contribute to the flexibility of the midfoot Features of the metatarsal bones Structure: Each metatarsal has a base (proximal), shaft (body), and head (distal). Base: Broad, articulates with tarsal bones (forming tarsometatarsal joints). Shaft: Long, slightly curved with dorsal convexity. Head: Rounded, articulates with proximal phalanges (metatarsophalangeal joints). Individual Features: 1st Metatarsal: Largest and strongest, supports most body weight. 2nd Metatarsal: Longest, articulates with all three cuneiform bones. 3rd & 4th Metatarsals: Articulate with lateral cuneiform and cuboid bones. 5th Metatarsal: Features a prominent tuberosity (styloid process) for muscle attachment. Functions: Support body weight and maintain the foot's arches. Osteology theory topics/questions 46  Provide attachment points for muscles and ligaments. Facilitate movements like flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction of toes. Structure of the tarsometatarsal joints and possible movements (including ligaments with their attachments) The tarsometatarsal joints (Lisfranc joints) are plane synovial joints between the distal tarsal bones and the bases of the metatarsals. Articulating Surfaces: Medial cuneiform articulates with the 1st metatarsal. Intermediate and lateral cuneiforms articulate with the 2nd and 3rd metatarsals. Cuboid articulates with the 4th and 5th metatarsals. Ligaments Dorsal Tarsometatarsal Ligaments: Connect the tarsals to the metatarsals dorsally. Plantar Tarsometatarsal Ligaments: Reinforce the plantar aspect. Lisfranc Ligament: Connects the medial cuneiform to the base of the 2nd metatarsal; critical for joint stability. Movements: Limited gliding and rotation movements allow for slight flexibility in the arch during walking. Features of the toes' phalanges The phalanges → long bones in the foot Located distal to the metatarsals Like in the hand, each toe consists of three phalanges, which are named proximal, middle, and distal phalanges. Osteology theory topics/questions 47  However, the hallux (great toe) only has two phalanges → proximal and distal. Structure of the metatarsophalangeal joints and possible movements (including ligaments with their attachments) The metatarsophalangeal joint is a hinge joint and performs the following movements: Movements Flexion and extension Ligament Collateral ligament But the metatarsophalangeal joint can also be classified as a ball and socket joint Movements Abduction and adduction Flexion and extension Circumduction Ligaments Collateral ligaments Deep transverse metatarsal ligaments Structure of the interphalangeal joints and possible movements (including ligaments with their attachments) The interphalangeal joints are synovial hinge joints between the phalanges of the fingers and the toes. These synovial hinge joints allow movements like flexion and extension: Flexion in the distal interphalangeal joint (DIP) Flexion in the proximal interphalangeal joint (PIP) Extension in the distal interphalangeal joint (DIP) Ligaments Collateral Ligaments: Located on either side of the joint, these provide lateral stability and prevent excessive sideways movement. Osteology theory topics/questions 48  Palmar Ligament: Located on the palmar side of the joint, this prevents hyperextension and reinforces the joint anteriorly. Attachments Structure of the foot arches The foot has three arches: two longitudinal (medial & lateral) arches, and one anterior transverse arch. They are formed by the tarsal and metatarsal bones, and supported by ligaments and tendons in the foot. The foot's arches are essential for weight distribution and movement efficiency. Medial Longitudinal Arch Formed by: Calcaneus Talus Navicular Three cuneiforms The first three metatarsals Support structures: Ligaments: Plantar ligaments (notably the long plantar, short plantar, and plantar calcaneonavicular ligaments) The medial ligament of the ankle joint Other: Plantar aponeurosis Lateral Longitudinal Arch Consists of: Calcaneus Cuboid The fourth and fifth metatarsals Support structures: Ligaments: Osteology theory topics/questions 49  Plantar ligaments (especially the long plantar, short plantar, and plantar calcaneonavicular ligaments) Other: Plantar aponeurosis. Transverse Arch Composition: Spans the bases of the metatarsals, the cuboid, and the three cuneiform bones. Support structures: Ligaments: Plantar ligaments (in particular the long plantar, short plantar and plantar calcaneonavicular ligaments) Deep transverse metatarsal ligaments Other: Plantar apeneurosis For each joint it’s necessary to know: the name of the joint, articular surfaces of the joint, the type of joint according to the shape of the articular surfaces and axes of movements possible, accessory elements of each joint, ligaments of each joint with their attachments with their division into intra and extracapsular. QUESTIONS FROM PREVIOUS CREDITS What are the accessory elements of the synovial joint? list the feautures of a typical vertebra list the characteristic features of a typical thoracic vertebra List the characteristic features of the typical cervical vertebra List the characteristic features of the typical lumbar vertebra Osteology theory topics/questions 50  List the additional elements of the knee joint, describe the origins and insertions of the crucial ligaments List the articular surfaces of the radiocarpal joint and describe the type of joint Describe the origins and insertions of ligaments of the shoulder joint List the tarsal bones describe the joints connecting the atlas and axis, name the joints and give their type list the accessory elements of the ankle joint state the planes and axes of movements possible to make in the hip joint name the articular surfaces of the elbow joint describe the sternocostal joint, give the articular surfaces, type of joint and ligaments present list the joints present in the vertebra column with their type describe the attachments of anterior and posterior crutiate ligament of the knee joint what are basic elements of the synovial joint List the additional elements of the elbow joint, describe the insertions of the radial collateral ligament Describe the structure of the knee joint: articular surfaces, type of joint and types of movements State the planes and axes of movements possible to make in the shoulder joint Give the examples of synchondroses (at least 4) List the joints present in the vertebral column with their type ⁠List the characteristic features of the