Pharmacy Orientation (Nile Valley University) PDF

Nile Valley University Faculty Of Pharmacy Pharmacy Orientation Code: PT101 Credit hour: 1 Lectures number: )1( Pharmaceutics and pharmaceutical...

Nile Valley University Faculty Of Pharmacy Pharmacy Orientation Code: PT101 Credit hour: 1 Lectures number: )1( Pharmaceutics and pharmaceutical technology Department Profession of pharmacy  Pharmacy: – Derived form Greek word "pharmakon" means medicine or drug – Means the art and science of preparing and dispensing medications and the provision of drug – related information to the public.  Pharmacy involves Interpretation of Compounding prescription orders Labeling Dispensing of drug and devices Patient monitoring  Drugs: Is the material that has a pharmacological effect Drug may be Natural in origin (plant – animal Synthetic (e.g. aspirin) – mineral)  Drug Classification: Prescribed drug: Non prescribed drug: the drug OTC 'Over The dispensed only Counter' drug that by prescription can be dispensed without prescription. Name of the drug: Chemical name: indicating its chemical structure e.g. (N – para – aminophenol) Generic name: the name given to the compound during early investigation Official name: its name in pharmacopeia e.g. B.P.1998: Paracetamol and in U.S.P XXII: Acetaminophen Brand name: its trade name in the market. Abimol (Glaxo) , Pyral (Kahira) , Cetal (Epico) Scope of Pharmacy  Education All faculties of pharmacy in Egypt adopt 5 + 1(training ) years program to get B.Sc. Pharm D- clinical The courses of pharmacy education: 1. Pharmaceutics, 2. clinical pharmacy 3. Pharmacognosy 4. Organic chemistry 5. Analytical chemistry 6. Pharmaceutical chemistry 7. Biochemistry 8. Microbiology and public health 9. Pharmacology & toxicology Complementary studies include: Mathematics, management, pharmacy law  Types of education necessary for creating a pharmacist: Basic science (Chemistry, Biology, Physics) Technical Skills Drug information and scientific knowledge Economic knowledge Psychological and sociological understanding Aims of Modern pharmaceutical education Provide scientific background Provide professional skills and knowledge Provide business training Provide broad general education  Under-graduated program and curriculums Pharmaceutics: formulation of drug in dosage form Organic chemistry: science deals with the chemical structure and nomenclature of chemical compounds Analytical chemistry: Is the science deals with the analysis of analytical regents, raw materials and drug products Clinical pharmacy : is a health science discipline in which pharmacists provide patient care that optimizes medication therapy and promotes health, and disease prevention. Pharmacognosy: Is the science deals with cultivation, collection transportation, quality control and preservation of plants It includes photochemistry a science deals with studying active ingredients of the plant and its clinical effectiveness Pharmaceutical chemistry: science deals with the analysis and synthesis of raw materials, analytical reagents and final product Biochemistry: biochemistry is the science deals with the chemistry and the biological importance of chemical agents found in diet and the body Microbiology and public health: Microbiology: is the science deals with microscopic or ultramicroscopic structure, action of viable micro-organisms as bacteria, virus, fungi and parasites, also deals with infections, sterilization, antimicrobials and immunology Public health: is the science deals with all measures needed to protect the health of community Pharmacology and Toxicology: Pharmacology: Is the science deals with properties and effects of the drugs, interaction between the drug and the living system. Toxicology: Is the science deals with poisoning effect of drugs and other agents  Post-graduated Education Diploma degree in: Pharmaceutics Microbiology Department Department Pharmacognosy Microbiology and Industrial pharmacy Department: public health Hospital pharmacy Medicinal plants Genomics and Cosmetics bioinformatics Biochemistry Pharmacology Department: Clinical Pharmacy Pharmacology Department Toxicology and forensic Biochemistry Pharmacoeconomics chemical analysis analysis and health technology Pharmacovigilance assessment Medicinal Chemistry Department Drug control and quality assurance Drug discovery Master degree: e.g. M.D. pharmaceutical science PhD degree: doctor of philosophy in pharmaceutical science Nile Valley University Faculty Of Pharmacy Pharmacy Orientation Code: PT101 Credit hour: 1 Lecture number: )2( Pharmaceutics and pharmaceutical technology Department  Pharmacy Profession A-Patient services Direct Activities Indirect activities Hospital Pharmacy For epidemic diseases Clinical Pharmacy Preventive Measures Community Pharmacy Dehydration treatment Bio chemical analysis program Microbiological analysis National Screening Immunolgical analysis Family planning program Drug promotion  Pharmacy Profession (cont) B-Drug services 1. Innovating new Drugs 2. Screening for effect and safety 3. Analysis 4. Formulation 5. In process quality control 6. Production 7. Final quality control 8. Distribution 9. Ensure drug quality: Good manufacture practice GMP validation and quality assurance. 10. The production: of all human dosage forms cosmetics, vaccines, blood products, blood replacements, certain pesticides and veterinary drugs.  Fields of Professional Practice Clinical pharmacy Regulatory Hospital Control and pharmacy drug management Community Pharmacy Drug pharmacy career Promotion National control Military of diarrhea Pharmacy diseases project Academic Activities  Clinical Pharmacy Clinical pharmacist has the following responsibilities: Selection of drugs prevention of drug interaction prevention of teratogenicity Calculation of proper doses Intravenous admixture dispensing (for cytotoxics)  Clinical pharmacist should have knowledge in: Medical terminology, anatomy, physiology, histology and pathology Biopharmaceutics, pharmacokinetics and clinical pharmacokinetics Clinical science and practice of diseases, diagnosis, clinical pharmacy practice, drug therapeutics and evaluation of clinical toxicology Social and behavioral sciences  Community Pharmacy Dispensing prescription medicines to the public Ensuring that different treatments are compatible Checking dosage and ensuring that medicines are correctly and safely supplied and labeled Counseling and advising the public on the treatment of minor diseases and any adverse side effects of medicines Arranging the delivery of prescription medicines to patients. Selling over-the-counter medicines  Regulatory Control and drug management Government employed pharmacists working in Central Administration of Pharmaceutical Affairs (CAPA) and administrative services  Industrial Pharmacy Pharmacists in industry can hold positions in: Research and development (R&D) Manufacture and production Quality control and quality assurance Management  Hospital Pharmacy Pharmacist Working in: Private and government owned hospitals Health maintenance organization, clinics Drug information centers  The pharmacists in any hospital have the following activities 1. Dispense medications 2. Advise professionals and patients on drug use 3. A member in policy –making committee (PMC) responsible for drug selection use of antibiotics, hospital infection  Military Pharmacy Pharmacist may serve in the armed forces as: 1. Commissioned officer 2. Non- commissioned officer They have the following responsibilities: 1. Manufacture of generic products 2. Distribute drugs to military hospitals 3. Dispense drugs to army personal  Drug Promotion Pharmacist in drug promotion career responsible for medical representation to pharmacists, physicians, hospitals. They are called medical representatives.  Family Planning Pharmacist in family planning should inform and educate public about: Displaying family planning posters in hospitals and drug stores Advising people about the importance of family planning, spacing of children etc Explaining about oral contraceptives and family planning techniques  National control of diarrhea diseases project Pharmacists working in this project are responsible for giving advice about diarrhea and dehydration advice and recommend oral rehydration therapy  Academic Activities Education Research  Other carrier ➤ Nuclear pharmacist ➤ Pharmacist Clinical toxicologist ➤ Veterinary pharmacist Nile Valley University Faculty Of Pharmacy Pharmacy Orientation Code: PT101 Credit hour: 1 Lectures number: )3( Pharmaceutics and pharmaceutical technology Department Ethics of Pharmacy  ‫‪Code of Ethics‬‬ ‫الـقســـم‬ ‫ اقسم باهلل العظيم ان اكون امينا و حريصا علي الشرف و‬ ‫البر و الصالح فى مزاوله مهنه الصيدله و ال اطلب اجرا‬ ‫يزيد علي عملي وال فشى سرا وال استغل مهنتي فى افساد‬ ‫الخصال الحميده او ارتكاب االثام و ال اعطي سما البته وال‬ ‫ادل عليه وال اشير به‪.‬و ان اكون موقرا للذين علموني‬ ‫معترفا بفضلهم مسديا الوالدهم ما في وسعي من معروف و‬ ‫احسان و هللا علي ما اقول شهيد‬  Code of Ethics Pharmacists are health professional who assist individuals in making the best use of medications  This code states the principles fundamental roles and responsibilities of pharmacists The principles are: 1- pharmacists respect relationship between the patient and pharmacist and this occurs by: Pharmacist has to maintain knowledge Pharmacist asks for the consultation of colleagues 2- Pharmacist promotes the good of every patient in a confidential manner by considering: Needs stated by the patient Needs defined by health science 3- Pharmacist respect autonomy and dignity of each patient. Autonomy: Dignity: a pharmacist promotes The pharmacist respects the rights of self personal and cultural determination by differences among encouraging patient to patients. participate in decisions about their health.  Organizations: Pharmacist must maintain & develop good pharmaceutical practice by working with national and international organizations. International organizations: 1- World Health Organization (W.H.O.): It is responsible for health care all over the world. 2- Food and Drug Administration (F.D.A.): It is responsible for the quality of food and drug in U.S.A 3- United Nation Division of Narcotic Drugs (UNND) responsible for the regulations concerning the use and abuse of narcotic drugs. Role of international organizations: Development of protocols and methodologies Development of materials and magazines Exchange of information and experiences Researches for evaluations of medications  National organizations: 1.Egyptian Syndicate of pharmacist's : Responsible for the profession of pharmacy and welfare of pharmacists in Egypt. 1.Egyptian pharmaceutical Society: it's activities are educational: Issues a scientific Journal in pharmaceutical sciences. Hold conference every two years for pharmacists. Responsible for Continuing educations 3. Egyptian Society of Hospital Pharmacists: concerned with all aspects of hospital and clinical pharmacists. 4. National Pharmacopoeia Committee: Responsible for reviewing and updating the Egyptian pharmacopoeia.  Information Resources in Pharmacy The are original reports Primary Ex patent, scientific abstract , thesis ,caser report resources Review of primary recourses Secondary Ex: drugdex They represent a composite of information from primary and secondary sources. Tertiary Ex: printed textbook  Special Information's 1- Pharmacopeias 2- Formulary 2- Drug Compendia  Pharmacopoeias Includes special standards for: Purity – Strength – analysis of the drugs. Pharmacopoeias are issued by governments or international agencies - The world's best known pharmacopoeia: 1. United States Pharmacopeia/National Formulary (USP/NF) it is issued in 2 separate titles in one volume. U.S.P. contains monographs on drug and other substances while NF contains monographs on excipients used in pharmaceutical preparations 2. British pharmacopoeia (B.P): Authorized by the government of Great Britain. 3. Egyptian pharmacopoeia  Formularies Are list of drugs approved for use by special hospital or government. FDA produces approved drug products with therapeutic equivalence evaluations, an annual publication that is popularly called the Orange Book.  Drug Compendia Are references containing information on therapeutic use of drugs, dosage, contraindications adverse effects and pharmacokinetics of drugs. E.g: - Physician's Desk Reference (PDR) - American Hospital Formulary Service (AHFS) - Hand Book of non prescription products. Nile Valley University Faculty Of Pharmacy Pharmacy Orientation Code: PT101 Credit hour: 1 Lectures number: )4and 5( Pharmaceutics and pharmaceutical technology Department  Route of administration Route of administration is the path by which drug , fluid, poison or other substance is brought into contact with the body  A drug an agent intended for use in diagnosis, treatment, cure, or prevention of disease in humans or other animals. After administration of a drug a successful therapeutic response will be achieved if the drug reaches the suitable site of action or "receptor" site in sufficient concentration to exert its pharmacological action. This is achieved by the drug being absorbed into the body tissues from the site of administration. The choice of administration site depends on different factors such as whether a local or systemic action is required or how quickly a response to the drug is needed. Drug may be taken by Oral Buccal Sublingual Rectal Vaginal inhalation topical  Oral route  The oral route is used to obtain either systemic or local effects  The drug formulated in either solid or liquid form is absorbed from gastro intestinal tract (G.I.T.)  It is the commonly used route for drug administration  Advantage and disadvantages of oral route Advantages Disadvantages The onset of action is relatively slow It is the simplest route Absorption from G.I.T. may be irregular of administration Certain drugs are destroyed by enzymes Self administration of and other secretions found in G.I.T. drugs can be carried Drug solubility can be altered by out presence of other substances in G.I.T. It is the safest route of e.g. Calcium administration Slow gastric emptying drug inactivation by prolonged contact with gastric juices specially in elderly peoples It is unsuitable route in unconscious or vomiting patients  Buccal route  A drug administered by this route is formulated as tablet  The high vascularity of the tongue and bucchal cavity and the presence of saliva facilitates the dissolution of drug making this route highly effective  The tablets formulated for this route give quick onset of action  Advantage of buccal route Advantages Dis advantages Relatively quick onset of action Short duration of action Drugs absorbed directly into the systemic circulation avoiding the first pass effect Drugs can be administered to unconscious patients Antiemetic drug can be given by this route  Sublingual route For sublingual absorption, the area under the tongue is used. This gives a very fast onset of action but the duration is usually short.  Rectal route Drugs administrated by this route are formulated as liquids (enemas) solid (suppositories) and semisolids (creams – ointments) dosage form This route is used for both systemic and local effects The rectum is supplied by three veins middle and inferior upper rectal vein drain directly to the general drains into the portal vein and then circulation flows to the liver. This means that some of the drugs absorbed from the rectum can be subjected to the first pass effected therefore bioavailability may be less than 100%  Advantage and disadvantages of rectal route Advantages Disadvantages Can be used when the oral route is unsuitable e.g. Absorption can be irregular vomiting, unconscious variable effect patient, elderly or mentally Less convenient than oral disturbed patients route Useful when the drug Low patient acceptability causes G.I.T. irritation Can be used for local action  Vaginal route drugs administrated by this route are formulated as pessaries and oblong tablets (solid) or creams and ointments (semisolids) vaginal douches (liquid) These are inserted into the vagina This route can be used for both local and systemic effect advantages Drugs from the vagina are not subject to the first pass effect The higher fluid content in the vagina drugs dissolution is more efficient than by the rectal route  inhalation route In this route drugs are inhaled through the nose or mouth to produce either local or systemic effect This route is used mainly to treat respiratory conditions therefore drugs here are delivered to the site of action lungs Because of the large surface area rapid drug absorption Advantage of inhalation route  disadvantage of inhalation route Very costly Irritant effect on airways Limitation of medication dose due to airway symptoms Delivery systems can be cumbersome and time consuming  Topical route This route means that the skin is used as the site of administration This route is mainly used for local effects The formulations used include ointments, Creams and pastes (semisolids) lotions (liquids) Recently specialized dosage forms are developed when applied to the skin give systemic action by passing through skin layers to the blood these called transdermal dosage forms (patches)  Advantage and disadvantages of topical route Advantages Disadvantages Avoidance of first pass metabolism  Skin irritation Easy application  Poor permeability of some drugs Achievement of efficiency with lower total through the skin daily dosage of drug by continuous drug input  Enzymes in epidermis may be Suitable of self medication denature some drugs Improved patient compliance  Can be used only for drugs Improved physiological and pharmacological required low plasma response concentration for action Avoidance of gastro-intestinal incompatibility  Parenteral route This is the term used to describe drugs given by injection  Injections administered by many routes, which are described as follows: Intravenous rout ( i.v) –Drugs injected directly into the systemic circulation –This produces a very fast onset of action Intramuscular route ( i.m) – Drugs injected into the muscle layers – Used to produce a fairly fast onset of action specially when formulated in liquid forms – A slower or prolonged action well occur when the drug is presented as suspension or in oily form Subcutaneous Route (S.C) – Drugs are injected into the subcutaneous layer of the skin – Easiest and least painful type of injection – Slower onset of action but prolonged e.g. insulin Intradermal injections ( I.D) –Injected into the skin between the dermis and epidermis – Small volumes are injected (0.1 – 0.2 ml) –Mainly used for diagnosis of allergy and immunity Intra-arterial injection: Administered directly into an artery Mainly used for diagnosis e.g. X- ray contrast  Intraspinal Route: –Used to administer spinal anesthetics –Injection are made into the subarachnoid space (intrathecal) or peridural space (peridural) or into the cisterna magna (interacisternal) Intraarticular route – Made into the synovial fluid of joint – Used for the localized administration of corticosteroids as anti- inflammatory agents Nile Valley University Faculty Of Pharmacy Pharmacy Orientation Code: PT101 Credit hour: 1 Lectures number: )6( Pharmaceutics and pharmaceutical technology Department Pharmaceutical Dosage forms Definition: Dosage forms is the form in which a drug is administered to or used by a patient such as tablets, capsules, injections …..etc.  Dosage forms classification Dosage forms classification Liquid Dosage Semisolid D.F. Solid Dosage forms 1. Ointment Molded D.F. Sterile D.F. form 1. Solution 2. Cream 1. Suppositories 1. Injection 1. Tablets 2. Suspension 3. Paste 2. Pessaries 2. Ophthalmics 2. capsules 3. Emulsion 4. gel  I. Liquid Dosage Forms 1- Solutions 2- Suspensions 3- Emulsions  Solutions A group of preparations in which molecules of solute (solid, liquid & gas) are dispersed among those of the liquid solvent. Solutions used for specific therapeutic effect either internal or external Solutions can be classified according to the vehicle to 1- Aqueous 2- Non aqueous Advantages of solution dosage form More quickly effective than tablets and capsules Easy to be used by pediatrics and geriatrics Give uniform dose than suspension (not need shacking( Disadvantages of solution dosage form Bulky to carry around Less stable than solid dosage forms (hydrolysis and oxidation) Difficult to mask unpleasant taste and odour Aqueous solutions Aqueous solutions: Are liquid preparations that contain one or more soluble chemical substances dissolved in water Uses: it is used both as a vehicle or solvent for the medicinal ingredients Advantages: it is tasteless odorless, free from irritating character Aqueous solutions cont… Examples of aqueous solution preparations 1- Aromatic water Or medicated water is clear saturated aqueous solution of volatile or aromatic substance used as perfumed liquid e.g. peppermint water 2- Syrups (Sweet and / or viscid solution) are concentrated solutions of sugar as sugar in water: – Simple syrup: sugar in purified water only – Flavored syrup: when flavor is added to the syrup  Aqueous solutions cont… 3- Douches: Are aqueous solutions directed against a part or into cavity of the body used as cleansing or antiseptic agents such as eyes, pharyngeal and vaginal douches 4- Enemas: Rectal injection employed to evacuate the bowel. They may possess anathematic, nutritive, sedative properties  Aqueous solutions 5- Gargles: Aqueous solution containing antiseptics, antibiotics or anesthetics used to treat pharynx and nasopharynx 6- Mouth wash: Aqueous solutions containing antibiotics and flavoring agents to produce plaque, dental caries. Aqueous solutions 7- Nasal solutions: Aqueous solutions designed to be administered to the nasal passages in drops or sprays and used to reduce nasal decongestion 8- Otic Solutions: Aqueous solutions used for topical administration in ear Non-aqueous solution "Are solutions containing minor quantities of the toxic solvents such as benzene, acetone…..etc." External products will contain methanol, isopropanol, PEG, ethers…etc. Internal products will contain ethanol, glycol and oils  Examples of Non aqueous solvents 1-Elixirs: 2- Spirits: Are clear, pleasant sweetened Also known as essences are hydroalcoholic liquids intended hydroalcholic solutions of volatile for oral use substances containing 50-90% The main ingredients in elixirs alcohol. are ethanol and water, also The high alcohol content is glycerin and sorbitol are used. intended to make the oil to be The alcohol content in elixir dissolved in water. may be small or high. 3- Glycerins: Or glycerites are solutions containing not less than 50% glycerin by weight. It is valuable pharmaceutical solvent  Suspensions: Suspension: is a two phase system consisting of a finely divided insoluble solid dispersed in a liquid. The particle size of the dispersed solid is usually greater than 0.5 um. The liquid may be oily or aqueous. Properties of good suspension: The dispersed solid should settle slowly and easily redispersed on shacking The particles should not cake on settling Suitable viscosity that the preparation pours easily It must be chemically stable with elegant appearance Advantages of suspension Used to supply insoluble drugs in a liquid form The taste can be improved if supplied in suspension rather than in a liquid form Used when the drug is unstable in an aqueous medium  Suspensions The main ingredients (components) in a suspension: The drug External medium usually water Wetting agent Flocculating agents Suspending agent Agents to adjust pH (buffers) Flavoring sweetening and colouring agents Preservatives  Emulsion a two-phase system prepared by combining two immiscible liquids, one of which is dispersed uniformly throughout the other using an emulsifying agent It consists of two phases: – Internal phase or dispersed phase (solute) – External phase or dispersion medium (vehicle) Types of emulsions: 1- O/W emulsions: Oil dispersed, water dispersion 2- W/O emulsions: Water dispersed, Oil dispersion Advantages of Emulsion Masked the unpleasant taste or odor of oil and oil soluble drugs Solubility of many drugs is increased when incorporated in emulsion Prolonged action of drugs is obtained in emulsion form Disadvantages of Emulsion Physical un-stability of emulsion may occur due to the coalescence of the small dispersed globule forming large globules Creaming or cracking of emulsion ( Nile Valley University Faculty Of Pharmacy Pharmacy Orientation Code: PT101 Credit hour: 1 Lectures number: )7( Pharmaceutics and pharmaceutical technology Department Solid Dosage Forms Solid dosage forms Tablet Capsules  1- Tablets: Are solid pharmaceutical dosage forms containing drug substances mostly with suitable diluents.  Advantages of tablet Economy of preparation Convenience in packing, shipping Stability Advantages Ease of administration Portability and Simplicity Accuracy of dosage Tablet shapes: Method of preparation  1- Tablets: cont… Ingredients of compressed Tablets: The drug: active constituents Diluents: bulking agent Binder: adhere powder together Disintegrant: break down the tablet in G.I.T. Lubricant: prevent adherence of tablet and machine colouring agent: colouring the tablet's coat  Types of tablets: 1- Sugar coated tablets: Compressed tablets containing a sugar coat to: help masking the bitter taste protect the drug from oxidation or hydrolysis 2- Film coated tablets: Are compressed tablets covered with a thin layer of a water soluble material.  3- Enteric coated tablets: Tablets coated with substances that resist solution in gastric fluid but disintegrate in the intestine. This is useful for drugs inactivated in the stomach 4- Multiple compressed tablets: Multilayered tablets made by compressing additional tablets granulation on a previously compressed granulations.  Types of tablets: cont… 5- Controlled – release tablets: Compressed tablets formulated to release the drug slowly over a prolonged period of time  Types of tablets: cont… 6- Effervescent tablets: Compressed tablets containing sodium bicarbonate with organic acid such as citric acid or tartaric acid. In presence of water they release carbon dioxide which produces effervescence  Types of tablets: cont… 8- Bucchal tablets Are small, flat, oval tablets intended for bucchal administration. It dissolves or erodes slowly 9- Sublingual tablets: Tablets placed under the tongue to dissolve rapidly to give a quick action e.g. nitroglycerin tables 10- Chewable tablets: Tablets intended to be chewed where mastication ensures breaking up the tablet and diffusion of the drug in the mouth then absorption  2. Capsules: Are solid dosage forms in which the drug substance is endorsed in either hard or soft shell formed from gelatin 23% of the solid dosage forms are hard gelatin capsules and 2% are soft gelatin capsules tasteless easily administered Easily Manufactured  2. Capsules  The shell of soft gelatin capsule is made of gelatin, glycerin and sorbitol with a preservative to prevent fungi growth. There are two types of capsules are The hard capsule Soft gelatin capsules are of definite sizes, mainly are of different sizes and shapes. with a cap and bottom and They may be round, oval, oblong, mainly filled with powder, tubular and the contents may be granules or pellets liquid, paste or powder.  III. Semisolid Dosage Forms 1- Ointments: Are semisolid preparations for external use applied to the skin. They function therapeutically as protective, emollients to the skin and for topical application of medicine to the skin. They may be applied to the eye.  III. Semisolid Dosage Forms 2- Creams: Are viscous liquid or semisolid emulsions of either O/W or W/O type Cream of O/W include shaving creams, hand creams Cream of W/O include cold creams and emollient creams 3- Pastes: Are semisolid dosage forms containing high percentage of insoluble solid for topical application. Pastes are often used in treatment of discharge lesions to absorb serious secretions  IV. Molded solid dosage forms: Suppositories and pessaries  Are solid dosage forms of various weights and shapes, usually medicated for insertion into the rectum, vagina or urethra.  After insertion they soften, melt, disperse or dissolve in the cavity fluids.  Suppositories are suitable for pediatric and geriatric patients.  Suppositories provide either a local or systemic therapeutic effect.  V. Sterile Dosage Forms 1- Parenteral Preparations Differ from all other dosage forms because of the unique requirements. They are injected directly into body tissue through the skin and mucous membrane. They must be sterile and free from physical, chemical and biological contaminants. Many recent drugs specially derived from biotechnology can be given parentrally as they are inactivated when given orally.  V. Sterile Dosage Forms cont… Injections can be: Solutions Suspensions Emulsions Dry soluble or insoluble powder ready to be combined with a solvent just before use 2-Ophthalmic preparation: Are sterile isotonic buffered free from foreign particle suitable for installation to eyes Types of ophthalmic preparation: Solution Suspension ointment ( Nile Valley University Faculty Of Pharmacy Pharmacy Orientation Code: PT101 Credit hour: 1 Lectures number: )8( Pharmaceutics and pharmaceutical technology Department The prescription  Prescription is an order for a medicine (s) written by physician, dentist, veterinarian or other licensed health science practitioner legally entitled prescriber. Prescription Parts: 1- Name 2- Date 3- Superscription 4- Inscription 5- Subscription 6- Transcription 7- Signature Prescription Type: 1- Simple 2- Compound 3- Narcotic Prescription Handling: 1- Receiving 2- Check safety 3- Compounding  Prescription Parts 1 Patient's name: age: address: 2 Date: 3 R/: 4 5 Salicylamide 0.3gm 6 Paracetamol 0.25gm 7 Fiat capsule , mitte X Sign: one capsule to be taken three times daily Prescriber's Signature Dr………  Prescription Parts Cont… The name address and age of the patient The date means direction to pharmacist, R/ is a symbol for the The superscription Latin word recipe = you take i.e. it directs the pharmacist to prepare the medicine The inscription contains a list of ingredients and their quantities to be used in compounding the prescription means direction to pharmacist The subscription: Fiat: let them be made (dosage from) Mitte: send (number, of doses to be prepared) The transcription :signatura= write directions to the patient for the use of the prescription The name of the may be given as an official signature prescriber,  Prescription types Simple prescription: Compound prescription: It is the prescription contains four portions: consisting only of the active 1- Base 2- Adjuvant ingredients (as the prescription 3- Corrective 4-Vehicle mentioned before) Narcotic Prescription - Narcotics are drugs with narcotic activity e.g. morphine  Example for compound prescription 1. Patient: name……..age……..address……….. 2. Date: 3. R/ 4. Chloral hydrate 8 gm base 5. Sodium bromide 10gm adjuvant 6. Syrup of raspberry 22.5ml corrective 7. Water to 60ml Vehicle 8. Fiat: mixture 9. Sign: 4 ml every 4 hours 10. Signature of prescriber  Example for compound prescription Cont… - Base: is the main active ingredient with the main therapeutic effect. (Chloral hydrate is hypnotic) - Adjuvant: it aids the base in its action (sodium bromide has a sedative action) - Corrective: serve as flavouring agent - Vehicle: water is added to dilute the active ingredient and to adjust the volume.  3-Narcotic Prescription - Narcotics are drugs with narcotic activity e.g. morphine It must be written in ink or typewriter. The quantities must be written in words and numbers. In pharmacy, it must include date on which it was filled, name, address and registry number of the pharmacy. It must include name of prescriber, address of prescriber, registry number of prescriber and signature of prescriber It should be kept in separate file and not be refilled.  Example for Narcotic prescription 1. Patient's name…………..age………….address………… 2. Date………. 3. R/ 4. Codeine phosphate 20(twenty) mg 5. Fiat: Capsule, Mitte 16 (sixteen) Caps. 6. Signa: One Capsule Four times a day 7. Prescriber's name: Address: Registry no.: Signature: Dr………….. Nile Valley University Faculty Of Pharmacy Pharmacy Orientation Code: PT101 Credit hour: 1 Lectures number: )9,10, 11( Pharmaceutics and pharmaceutical technology Department Handling the prescription  Handling the prescription Receiving Check safety Compounding  I. Receiving the prescription: The pharmacist should be : estimates the length of time to dispense the prescription. prices it before dispensing especially when expensive In order to identify the finished product, some pharmacies employ (prescription claim check). This check is divided into 3 parts, each part has the same number, 1. one part is given to the patient 2. the second is attached to the prescription order 3. the third is attached to the final container. The identification is made more frequently by patient's name and address.  II. Checking the prescription for safety: The pharmacist should understand the prescription very well. pharmacist must be sure that there is no dangerous overdose or incompatibilities, otherwise he should consult the physician who wrote it. A. Methods for calculating the dose for child or infant can be based on: 1. Age 2. Weight 3. Body surface area  1-Based on age: for infants younger than 2 years use Fried's rule: – Infant dose = (Age in month/150) x adult dose For children 2 years and older use Young's rule: Child dose= (age in years/ (age in years + 12) x adult dose  2-Based on weight: Generally, heavy individuals can withstand larger dose, than a person with less weight. The usual doses in considered for persons with 70 Kg. For weight in pounds: – Child's dose= (weight in pounds/150) X adult dose For weight in Kg: – Child's dose= (weight in Kg/70) X adult dose  3- Based on body surface area ''B.S.A.": The average body surface area for adult is 1.7 m² – Child's dose= (B.S.A. in m² for child/ B.S.A. in m² of adult) X adult dose Or: – Child's dose= (B.S.A. in m² for child/ 1.7) X adult dose  B. Route of Administration No valid rule can be established for predicting the parental or the rectal dose of drug from the oral dose. Drugs which are absorbed completely from G.I.T will have equal parental and oral dose. Drugs which are poorly absorbed by the oral route will have smaller doses parentrally than orally.  C. Pharmaceutical Dosage form 1. The vehicle of prescription affects the safety and the therapeutic effect of the prescription. 2. The degree of subdivision of an active drug may affect therapeutic activity.  D. Frequency of Administration 1. Many potent drugs have cumulative action. If the frequency is too high, toxicity may occur even if the individual dose is safe e.g. digoxin. 2. In case of overdose the pharmacist should consult the physician. 3. In certain cases only the physician can know about the safety of the dose e.g.: – A nervous person needs higher dose of sedatives – In sever pain, large doses of narcotics are used.  III Compounding of the prescription: 1. Calculation 2. Storage Requirements 3. Container selection 4. Label  1) Calculation: Check any calculation for the quantity of medicine Example: R/ chloral hydrate 9 gm Sod. Bromide 12 gm Syrup of raspberry 22.5 ml Water to 60 ml Fiat: mixture Mitte: 100 ml Signa: 5 ml every 4 hours  1) Calculation: Check any calculation for the quantity of medicine Example: R/ chloral hydrate 9 gm 15 gm Sod. Bromide 12 gm 20 gm Syrup of raspberry 22.5 ml 37.5 gm Water to 60 ml to 100 ml Fiat: mixture Mitte: 100 ml Signa: 5 ml every 4 hours  2- Checking the storage Requirements: Many drugs are Some drugs should be protected from photosensitive atmospheric gases as (degraded in Oxygen which support presence of light) microorganisms growth therefore need and CO2 which shifts amber containers. pH. Therefore many need tightly dosed containers  3- Selecting the container: Any pharmaceutical formulation must have suitable container such as: Amber glass bottles: all oral medicines Pots or collapsible tubes: ointment and creams Eye dropper bottles: ear, nasal and eye drops.  4- Writing the label: Direction for the use of medicine should be clear and written before dispensary on a suitable size label. On the label the following should be written: The prescription number, date of dispensing, patient name, the prescriber's name and direction for use – Quantity to be taken – Amount to be used – Frequency of administration – Route of administration  Auxiliary labels: 1. Shake the bottle (suspension and emulsions) 2. For external use only 3. Keep out of reach of children 4. Not be swallowed in large amount (gargle and mouth wash) 5. For rectal use only 6. For vaginal use only 7. For the eye 8. For the ear 9. Keep in a cool place 10. Use as a gargle N.B. White labels for oral rout and Red labels for external use preparations.  Veterinary Doses: The dose of 40 pounds dog = 150 pound man. If the dose of dog is taken as 1, the dose of the other animals as following: – Cats 0.5 – Sheep and goat 3 – Horses 16 – Cattle 24 The dose of any animal from birth up to a few weeks old = 1/20 of adult dose Half grown animal = 1/3 of adult dose. Nile Valley University Faculty Of Pharmacy Pharmacy Orientation Code: PT101 Credit hour: 1 Lectures number: )12( Pharmaceutics and pharmaceutical technology Department System of Weights and Measures  System of Weights and Measures The international Name Abbreviation Equivalent system of units is generally accepted 1 kilogram Kg 1000 gm for use in pharmacy. 1 gram Gm 1000 mg Units of mass (weights): 1 milligram Mg 1000 ug – The base unit for (mcg) mass is the kilogram 1 Ug (mcg) 1000 ng (kg), the units of microgram mass commonly used in pharmacy are: 1 nanogram Ng 1000 pc (pictogram) Units of amount of substance: The base unit for Name Abbreviation Equivalent amount of substance is the mole (mol) 1 Mole Mol 1000 m mol 1 Millimole m mol 1000 u mol 1 Micromole U mol 1/1000 m mol  Units of Capacity (volume): The use of liter and Name Abbreviation Equivalent milliliter are universal in pharmacy practice. 1 liter L 1000 ml One liter is defined in U.K. as one cubic decimeter. 1 milliliter Ml 1000 ul 1 microliter Ul 1/1000 ml  Units of concentration: Concentration may be expressed in two ways: Mass concentration: expressed as gm/L Amount of substance concentration: expressed as mol/L In pharmacy the drug concentration in solution is usually expressed as mass concentration (gm/L) The concentration of electrolytes in solution for parental expressed as (mol/L)  Units of length: The meter Name Abbreviation Equivalent (m) is the base unit 1 centimeter cm 10 mm 1 millimeter mm 1000 um 1 micrometer lim 1000 nm (nanometer)  Types of Calculations: Working from a master formula: The master formula may list the ingredients for a total quantity greater than or less than the amount requires to be prepared. The formula must therefore be scaled down or scaled up. Example: calculate the amount of the ingredients for 150 ml and 900 ml from the master formula of opiate squill linctus: Ingredients Master formula Scaled down Scaled up Squill Oxymel 150 ml 50 ml 300 ml Camphorated opium tincture 150 ml 50 ml 300 ml Total syrup 150 ml 50 ml 300 ml Total Volume 450 ml 150 ml 900 ml  Dealing with percentage concentrations: Many pharmaceutical preparations consist of solutions of solids in liquids, solutions of liquids in liquids or admixtures of liquids in solids with solids. The proportions of the different components of these systems are often expressed as "percentages" the term "percentages" in pharmaceutical calculations should be qualified to indicate whether the solution is weight in volume (W/V) weight in weight (W/W) or volume in volume (V/V).  Definitions: "Percentage W/V indicates the number of grams of ingredient in 100 milliliters of product" The strength of a pharmaceutical solution of a solid in liquid is expressed as % W/V  Concentrations expressed as parts: The strength of some pharmaceutical solutions as expressed as "parts" of dissolved substance in "parts" of solution (e.g. 1/1000). In solutions of solids in liquid this means parts by weight (gm) in parts by volume (milliliters) of final solution. In solutions of liquid in liquid, parts by volume (milliliters) of dissolved liquids in parts by volume (milliliters) of the final solutions. It is useful to convert "parts" into percentages e.g. – 1 in 100 = 1% – 1 in 200 = 0.5% – 1 in 500 = 0.2% – 1 in 800 = 0.125% – 1 in 1000 = 0.1% Nile Valley University Faculty Of Pharmacy Pharmacy Orientation Code: PT101 Credit hour: 1 Lectures number: )13( Pharmaceutics and pharmaceutical technology Department  ‫الصيدله‪:‬‬ ‫مهنه الصيدله‪ :‬هي مهنه علميه تختص بتحضير االدويه فهي (علم ‪ +‬فن ‪ +‬صناعه)‬ ‫نشاه مهنه الصيدله‪:‬‬ ‫ارتبطت مهنه الصديله بحضارات كثيره في عصور مختلفها منها‪:‬‬ ‫عصر الدوله القديمه (‪3400‬ق‪.‬م‪ ).‬و قد وضع اكثر من اربعون مؤلفا في الطب و العالج‬ ‫نهايه الدوله المتوسطه (‪1788‬الي ‪ 1580‬ق‪.‬م‪ ).‬و حتي بدايه الدوله الحديثه (‪ 1580‬الي‬ ‫‪ 1557‬ق‪.‬م‪ ).‬تالشت كل معالم الحضاره المصريه و اختلطت بكثير من حضارات‬ ‫الشرق‬ ‫دخل الفرس بين عام ‪ 525‬حتي ‪ 332‬ق‪.‬م‪.‬و تم فتح االسكندر االكبر عام ‪ 332‬ق‪.‬م‪.‬‬ ‫دخلت مصر االمبراطوريه الرومانيه عام ‪ 30‬بعد الميالد‬ ‫فتح مصر العرب عام ‪ 460‬بعد الميالد‬ ‫الجدير بالذكر ان الفراعنه قد عرفوا مهنه الصيدله من خالل نظريتان‪:‬‬ ‫االولي‪ :‬وجود الكاهن محضر االعشاب‬ ‫الثانيه‪ :‬وجود الطبيب الذى يحضر التذكره الطبيه‬  ‫تاريخ الصيدله‬ ‫‪History Of Pharmacy‬‬ ‫فوائد دراسه تاريخ الصيدله‪:‬‬ ‫ الكشف عن تاريخ علمي يفخر به الشرق عامه و مصر خاصه‬ ‫ تبصير العالم بما كانت عليه مصر من رقي حضاري‬ ‫ دراسه فوائد العقاقير المختلفه‬ ‫ معرفه مدي تداخل علوم الصيدله مع العلوم االخري كالسحر و الفلك و العقاقير‬ ‫الدينيه‬ ‫ دراسه تاريخ االمراض و صناعه الدواء و مستحضرات التجميل‬ ‫الصيدله عن قدماء المصرين و العرب‬ ‫حملت لنا االثار المصريه القديمه و اوراق البردي و مؤلفات الباحثين ما يثبت تفوق االنسان المصري في‬ ‫العلوم‬ ‫وضع ابو قراط في قسمه الشهير فقره عن الصيدلي قال فيها "عدم اعطاء دواء فيه خطر علي صحه‬ ‫االنسان"‬ ‫جاء في احد كتب تاريخ الطب في صفحه ‪ 174‬ان العقاقير اليونانيه كتبت و يرجع كثير منها بالشك الي‬ ‫الطب المصري القديم في الكتب المقدسه لالله توت و هي مكونه من ‪ 22‬برديه منها ‪ 6‬تختص‬ ‫بالطب‬  ‫التدرج في نشأه مهنه الصيدله‬ ‫تدرجت مهنه الصيدله من العشاب الي العطار ثم الي الصيدلي‬ ‫ ‬ ‫بداء العشابون يكتبون علومهم علي لوحات من الطين كما حدث في بابل و‬ ‫ ‬ ‫يكتبونها في مصر علي شرائح من البردي كما حدث في مصر ثم تطورت‬ ‫صناعه العشاب و نشات من هذه مهنه صناعه العطاره‬ ‫كلمه الصيدله (باالفرنجيه ‪ )Pharmacy‬اصلها هندي و نقلت عن الفرس علي‬ ‫ ‬ ‫هيئه جندل ثم جندن ثم حرفت الي صندل ثم الي صندن‬ ‫الصيدله بالعربيه معناها بيع العطر و االدويه‬ ‫ ‬ ‫العقار هو النبات الذى يعقر االبل في الصحراء و يسمها‬ ‫ ‬ ‫اقربازين‪ :‬لفظ فارسى يعني فن تركيب الدواء‬ ‫ ‬ ‫في عصر النهضه ظهرت مصطلحات طبيه و صيدليه الزالت تستخدم حتي االن‬ ‫ ‬ ‫مثل‪-:‬‬ ‫العقار= ‪Medicine = Drug‬‬ ‫ ‬ ‫دواء او سم = ‪Medicamentus‬‬ ‫ ‬  ‫االلهه العشابين في مصر القديمه‪:‬‬ ‫‪ o‬اوزوريس‬ ‫‪ o‬ايموحتب و رع و حاتور و إمحوتب (إبن بتاح)‬ ‫‪ o‬عمل إيموحتب مهندسا و وزيرا و طبيبا للملك زوسر و لقب بالكاهن‬ ‫االعظم‬ ‫‪ o‬توت او تحوت (هيرمس) تنسب اليه مجموعة هيرمس و يقال ان‬ ‫عددها ‪ 42‬كتابا‬ ‫كشف الكتابه و اوراق البردي عند المصرين‬ ‫العظم – الطين – الطين المحروق – الجلد – الكتان – المعادن – الحجر‬ ‫‪ -‬الخشب – و البردي الذى ادي الي اكتشاف الورق‬ ‫و كانت البرديات الطبيه المصنوعه من اوراق البردي من مصادر‬ ‫المعلومات عن مصر القديمه‬  ‫اهم البرديات القديمه‬ ‫‪ -1‬برديه كاهون ‪ - :‬دواء سحري‬ ‫‪ -‬وصف دواء المراض النساء‬ ‫‪ -‬وصفات طبيه و بيطريه‬ ‫‪ -2‬برديه هرست‪ - :‬دواء خالص‬ ‫‪ -‬دواء سحري‬ ‫‪ -3‬برديه برلين ‪:‬‬ ‫‪ -‬بها وصفات اختباريه لمعرفه المرأه الحامل‬ ‫‪ -4‬برديه لندن‪ - :‬دواء سحري اغلبها المراض العيون و عالج‬ ‫الحروق‬ ‫‪ -5‬برديه المشايح‪ - :‬و هي باللغه القبطيه و بها ‪ 227‬وصفه طبيه‬ ‫المراض العيون‬ ‫‪ -6‬برديه زويحه‪ -:‬و هي باللغه القبطيه و محفوظه في متحف الفاتيكان‬ ‫و بها ‪ 45‬وصفه طبيه لالمراض الجلديه‬  ‫نتائج دراسه البرديات‪:‬‬ ‫تصنع هذه البرديات اسس ثابته لمهنتي الطب و الصيدله‬ ‫تحتوي هذه البرديات علي مجموعه من العقاقير النباتيه و الحيوانيه‬ ‫و المعدنيه و كانت نسبه العقاقير النباتيه حوالي ‪%83‬‬  ‫المدارس الطبيه في مصر الحديثه‬ ‫انشا كلوت بك عام ‪ 1824‬مستشفى في ابي زعبل تسع بين ‪ 800‬الي‬ ‫‪ 1000‬مريض احضر لها حوالي ‪ 150‬صيدلي و طبيبا و مساعدا‬ ‫معظمهم من ايطاليا و فرنسا‬ ‫انشاء كلوت بك في سنه ‪ 1927‬مدرسه طبيه لالطباء و الصيادله و‬ ‫االطباء البيطرين بابي زعبل‬ ‫بني أحمد بن العيني القصر العيني و نقل اليه مدرسه الطب و المستشفي‬ ‫من ابي زعبل و انشا مدرسه الصيدله الحديثه و بلغ عدد الطلبه ‪140‬‬ ‫طالب طب و ‪ 50‬طالب صيدله‬ ‫في عام ‪ 1956 – 1955‬صدر مرسوم بجعل مدرسه الصيدله كليه‬ ‫مستقله ثم تم انشاء كليه الصيدله بجامعه االسكندريه‬  ‫مدرسه مساعدي الصيادله‬ ‫في عام ‪ 1912‬تم منح ‪ 120‬شخصا ال يحملون اى شهدات‬ ‫تصاريح مزاوله مهنه مساعد صيدلي لمسعده الصيادله و‬ ‫في عام ‪ 1925 – 1914‬تم فتح فرع خاص بالمدرسه‬ ‫الطبيه لتخريج مساعدي الصيادله و اغلقت المدرسه عام‬ ‫‪1925‬‬ ‫و في عام ‪ 1956-1955‬اعيد افتتاحها و جعل شرط القبول‬ ‫بها شهاده الثانويه العامه و مده الدراسه سنتين ثم اقفلت‬ ‫مره اخري عام ‪1964‬‬  ‫الــتـحـنـيـط‬ ‫الفكر الديني و االسباب التي دعت الي التحنيط هي‪:‬‬ ‫محاوله حفظ االجسام من التلف‬ ‫محاوله حفظ الشخصيه بعد الموت‬ ‫خلق هيئه تشبه اوزوريس بعد التحنيط‬ ‫خلود الروح‬ ‫الفائده التي اثرت في العالم بمعرفه التحنيط‬ ‫كشف لنا عن كثير من المعلومات الكيميائيه و بعض المواد‬ ‫‪.1‬‬ ‫المستعمله‬ ‫معرفه تقدم المصرين القدماء في الجراحه و الطب‬ ‫‪.2‬‬ ‫معرفه كثير من االمراض الموجوده عندهم‬ ‫‪.3‬‬ ‫معرفه بعض انواع الجراثيم‬ ‫‪.4‬‬ ‫معرفه انواع االغذيه‬ ‫‪.5‬‬ ‫معرفه تاثير الحضارات المختلفه علي عقائد المصرين‬ ‫‪.6‬‬  ‫المواد المستعمله في التحنيط‬ ‫سبب االستعمال‬ ‫المواد المستعمله‬ ‫لتجفيف االجسام‬ ‫الجير الحي‬ ‫عامل حافظ‬ ‫الملح‬ ‫يتكون من كربونات و بيكربونات الصوديوم و سلفات الصوديوم‬ ‫النطرون‬ ‫للتنظيف‬ ‫لتغطيه االذن و االعين و الفم و لسد جميع فتحات الجسم‬ ‫شمع العسل‬ ‫مسمي بالزفت السائل‬ ‫القطران‬ ‫مثل القرفه ماده للتطهير‬ ‫التوابل‬ ‫مثل زيت السيدات‬ ‫الزيوت الصنوبريه‬ ‫يستخدم مخلوط مع الملح‬ ‫العرعر‬ ‫لغسيل االحشاء‬ ‫نبت النخيل‬ ‫اساس في عمليه التحنيط‬ ‫الراتنجات‬ ‫العقاقير ذات االصل الحيواني عند قدماء المصرين‪:‬‬ ‫دهن القط لمقاومه الفئران‬ ‫العاج لعالج القراع‬ ‫العسل في حاالت االمساك و للعيون و الحروق‬ ‫العقاقير ذات االصل المعدني عند قدماء المصرين‬ ‫استخدموا النحاس و القصدير بكثره‬  ‫الـصـيدلـه عند الـعـرب‬ ‫في الجاهليه‪ :‬كانت بدائيه‬ ‫في االسالم ‪ :‬نبغ المسلمون في علم االقربازين و عرفوا كثير من المواد مثل حمض‬ ‫الكبريتيك و ادخلوا العقاقير النباتيه و قد جاء في كتاب مفضالت الصيدله ان العرب‬ ‫هم الذين رفعوا الصيدله في مقامها الجدير به‬ ‫الصيدله في عصر النبوه‪ :‬اوصي النبي صلي هللا عليه و سلم و بالمداواه بالعسل و لبن‬ ‫االبل و بالحبه السوداء و غيرها كما نصح بالجماحه و الكي‬ ‫الصيدله في عصر الخلفاء الراشدين‪ :‬كان عصر سيدنا عمر بن الخطاب ازهي عصور‬ ‫الخلفاء علما و ذلك بعد ان فتح عمرو بن العاص مصر و استولي علي مدينه‬ ‫االسكندريه تلك المدينه التي قادت العالم يوما بعلمها و بعلمائها‬ ‫الصيدله في العصر االموي‪ :‬ظهر في اخر العصر االموي جابر بن حيان ابو الكيمياء‬ ‫عند العرب‬ ‫الصيدله في عصر الدوله العباسيه‪ :‬تقدم علم الصيدله و العقاقير تقدما عظيما و اصبح‬ ‫العرب مركزا للتقدم العلمي و الفني عندما انشات مدينه بغداد و تولي هارون الرشيد‬ ‫الخالفه اسس المستشفيات العامه و انشا جامعه بغداد و قد امر بطبع دستور االدويه‬ ‫الصيدله في عصر االندلس‪ :‬دخل العرب االندلس و اتخذوا مدينه قرطبه عاصمه لهم و‬ ‫اصبحت مهدا للحضارات و العلوم و من العلماء الذين نبغوا في العقاقير ابو القاسم‬ ‫االزهراوي مؤلف كتاب التصريف‬  ‫الـصـيدلـه الـحديثـه‬ ‫في القرن الثامن عشر‪:‬‬ ‫ارتقت الصيدله و اخترع الصيادله االدويه المختلفه لعالج االمراض و في هذا القرن‬ ‫اعترف بالصيادله ضمن العائله الطبيه بعد نزاع حاد مع االطباء في انجلترا و قد‬ ‫سبقت المانيا في الصيدليات جميع الدول االوروبيه‬ ‫في القرن التاسع عشر‪:‬‬ ‫تنوعت علوم الكيمياء و الصيدله و الطب و العالج‬ ‫في الثلث االول‪ :‬تم اكتشاف القلويات‬ ‫في الثلث الثاني‪ :‬تم اكتشاف المقويات و المخدرات‬ ‫في الثلث الثالث‪ :‬تم اكتشاف المواد العضويه‬ ‫في القرن العشرين‪:‬‬ ‫تم اكتشاف المضادات الحيويه – الهرمونات – مركبات السلفا‬ ‫في القرن الحادي و العشرين‪:‬‬ ‫اهم ما يميز هذا القرن هو‪ -1 -:‬االهتمام بالتكنولوجيا الحيويه و الهندسه و الوراثيه‬ ‫‪ -2‬تم انتاج االنسولين و بعض الهرمونات و اللقاحات عن طريق الهندسه الوراثيه‬  ‫نماذج لمشاهير العرب في الصيدله و اهم مؤلفاتهم‬ ‫الكندي‪ - :‬في العصر العباسى‬ ‫له كتاب‪ :‬معرفه قوي االدويه و المفرده و هو يحتوي علي وصفات عالجيه‬ ‫المبادى‪ - :‬في العصر العباسى‬ ‫له كتاب العشر مقاالت في العين و كتاب المسائل في الطب‬ ‫المجوسى‪ - :‬في العصر العباسى‬ ‫له كتاب الملكي ( كامل الصناعه في الطب) و هو من جزئين و الجزء الثاني خاص‬ ‫بالصيدله‬ ‫أبو بكر الرازي‪ -:‬في العصر العباسى‬ ‫كتاب الحاوي و المنصوري سر االسرار ‪-‬يعتبر حجه الطب في اوروبا حتي القرن‬ ‫السابع عشر الميالدي‬ ‫اول من استخدم امعاء القطط في الخيوط الجراحيه‬ ‫قام بتحضير حمض الكبرتيك و الكحول‬ ‫الشيخ الرئيس ابن سينا‪ - :‬في العصر العباسى‬ ‫‪ -‬له كتاب القانون في الطب – اساس تعليم الطب‬ ‫داوود االنطاكي‪ - :‬في القرن العاشر هجري‬ ‫‪ -‬له كتاب تذكره اولي االلباب و الجامع العجب العجاب‬  ‫النباتات الطبيه الفرعونيه‬ ‫‪".1‬الحنظل" استخدم كطارد للديدان و( االمراض العيون و االلتهاب كلبخه مع ماده‬ ‫النطرون و استعمل ايضا ضد افراز الدموع مع سلفات النحاس‬ ‫‪.2‬عثر علي حبات الخس مرسومه علي المقابر و ذكر كرمز للخصوبه و استعمل‬ ‫ايضا لقتل الديدان‬ ‫‪.3‬استعمل المصريون القدماء زيت الخروع كدهان للشعر و مسهل و كزيت‬ ‫لالضاءه‬ ‫‪.4‬استعمل البصل كمرهم لعالج االالم و كانوا ياكلونه كثير‬ ‫‪.5‬استعمل الثوم للنزالت المعويه و البرد و تقويه االعصاب‬  ‫‪.8‬استعمل الصبر العربي كمسهل‬ ‫‪.9‬استعمل الترمس كمدر للبول و مع الحلبه لالمراض الجلديه و لنعومه الجلد و قد‬ ‫استعمل المسحوق لطرد الديدان و الصداع‬ ‫‪.10‬استعمل زيت الحلبه في برديه (اودين سميث) كدهان للوجه و استعمل بعد طحنه‬ ‫مع التين و البلح و الزبيب للكحه و قد استعمل ماء الحلبه كقطره مع ماء الورد‬ ‫كقطره للعين‬ ‫‪.11‬قد استعملت حبه البركه النتفاخ البطن و الكبد و كان يخلط مع الحساء للصداع و‬ ‫قد استعمل بذر الكتان للقراع و كذلك لعالج البهاق مع العسل‬ ‫‪.12‬استخدم قدماء المصرين بذور الملوخيه في الحميات و امراض الكبد‬ ‫‪.13‬استخدم المصريون القدماء الكمون كمسهل و طارد للرياح و غيار الجروح‬ ‫‪.14‬استخدم قدماء المصريون الكسبره كطارد للديدان‬