PSY 112L Psychological Statistics Final Exam Guide PDF

UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO College of Arts and Sciences Education General Education - Mathematics Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for Self-Directed Learning (SDL) Course/Subject: PSY 112/L – PSYCHOLOGICAL STATISTICS...

UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO College of Arts and Sciences Education General Education - Mathematics Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for Self-Directed Learning (SDL) Course/Subject: PSY 112/L – PSYCHOLOGICAL STATISTICS Name of Teacher: Prof. ROSYL S. MATIN-AO THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY; NOT FOR REPRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE OF ITS INTENDED USE. THIS IS INTENDED ONLY FOR THE USE OF THE STUDENTS WHO ARE OFFICIALLY ENROLLED IN THE COURSE/SUBJECT. EXPECT REVISIONS OF THE MANUAL. NOT FOR REPRODUCTION AND COMMERCIAL USE.  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 Course Facilitator: ROSYL S. MATIN-AO Email: [email protected] Student Consultation: Thru e-mail, text message, and BB Chat Mobile: 0999-544-7736 Phone: (082)300-5456 / 305-0647 Local 149 Effectivity Date: June 2020 Mode of Delivery: Blended (On-line with face-to-face or virtual sessions) Time Frame: 162 hours Student Workload Expected Self-Directed Learning Requisites: None Credit: 5 units Attendance Requirements: A minimum of 95% attendance is required at all scheduled Virtual or face to face sessions. Areas of Concern Details This 5-unit course self-instructional manual is designed for blended learning mode of instructional delivery, i.e. online sessions through the LMS and the 2-days on-campus / Contact and onsite face-to-face review and final examination. The Non-contact Hours expected number of hours will be 162 including review and examination days. The face to face sessions shall include the summative assessment tasks (exams) since this course is crucial in the psychologist licensure examination. Submission of assessment tasks shall be on 3rd, 5th, 7th and 9th week of the term. The assessment paper shall be attached with a cover page indicating the title of the assessment task (if the task is performance), the name of the Course Facilitator, date of submission and name of the student. The document should be emailed to the Course Facilitator. It is also expected that you already paid your tuition and other fees before the submission of the Assessment Task Submission assessment task. If the assessment task is done in real time through the features in the Blackboard Learning Management System, the schedule shall be arranged ahead of time by the Course Facilitator. Since this course is included in the Psychologist licensure examination, you will be required to take the Multiple-Choice Question exam during the on- campus / onsite sessions. This should be scheduled ahead OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 1  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 of time by the Course Facilitator. This is non-negotiable for all licensure-based programs. To ensure honesty and authenticity, all assessment tasks are required to be submitted through Turnitin with a maximum similarity index of 30% allowed. This means that if your paper goes beyond 30%, the students will either opt to redo her/his paper or explain in writing addressed to the Course Facilitator the reasons for the similarity. In addition, if the paper has reached more than 30% similarity index, Turnitin Submission the student may be called for a disciplinary action in (if necessary) accordance with the University’s OPM on Intellectual and Academic Honesty. Please note that academic dishonesty such as cheating and commissioning other students or people to complete the task for you have severe punishments (reprimand, warning, and expulsion). The score for an assessment item submitted after the designated time on the due date, without an approved extension of time, will be reduced by 5% of the possible maximum score for that assessment item for each day or Penalties for Late Assignments part day that the assessment item is late. / Assessments However, if the late submission of assessment paper has a valid reason, a letter of explanation should be submitted and approved by the Course Facilitator. If necessary, you will also be required to present/attach evidences. Assessment tasks will be returned to you two (2) weeks after the submission. This will be returned by email or via Blackboard portal. Return of Assignments / For group assessment tasks, the Course Facilitator will Assessments require some or few of the students for online or virtual sessions to ask clarificatory questions to validate the originality of the assessment task submitted and to ensure that all the group members are involved. You should request in writing addressed to the Course Facilitator his/her intention to resubmit an assessment task. The resubmission is premised on the student’s failure Assignment Resubmission to comply with the similarity index and other reasonable grounds such as academic literacy standards or other reasonable circumstances e.g. illness, accidents financial constraints. OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 2  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 You should request in writing addressed to the program coordinator your intention to appeal or contest the score given to an assessment task. The letter should explicitly explain the reasons/points to contest the grade. The program coordinator shall communicate with the students Re-marking of Assessment on the approval and disapproval of the request. Papers and Appeal If disapproved by the Course Facilitator, you can elevate your case to the program head or the dean with the original letter of request. The final decision will come from the dean of the college. All culled from BlackBoard sessions and traditional contact Course discussions/exercises – 30% 1 formative assessment – 10% st 2nd formative assessment – 10% 3rd formative assessment – 10% Grading System All culled from on-campus/onsite sessions (TBA): Final exam – 40% Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual University system and procedures. Preferred Referencing Style Use the APA 6th Edition. You are required to create a umindanao email account which is a requirement to access the BlackBoard portal. Then, the course coordinator shall enroll the students to have access to the materials and resources of the course. All communication formats: chat, submission of assessment tasks, requests etc. shall be through the portal and other university recognized platforms. Student Communication You can also meet the course coordinator in person through the scheduled face to face sessions to raise your issues and concerns. For students who have not created their student email, please contact the course coordinator or program head. Khristine Marie D. Concepcion, Ph.D Contact Details of the Dean Email: [email protected] Phone: (082) 300-5456 / 305-0647 Local 134 Sheena May A. Lacuesta Contact Details of the Program Email: [email protected] Head Phone: (082) 300-5456 / 305-0647 Local 134 OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 3  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 Students with special needs shall communicate with the Course Facilitator about the nature of his or her special needs. Depending on the nature of the need, the Course Facilitator, with the approval of the Program Head, may Students with Special Needs provide alternative assessment tasks or extension of the deadline of submission of assessment tasks. However, the alternative assessment tasks should still be in the service of achieving the desired course learning outcomes. Dr. Khristine Marie D. Concepcion – Dean Email: [email protected] Instructional Help Desk Phone: (082)300-5456/305-0647 Local 134 Contact Rosyl S. Matin-ao – College LMS Facilitator Email: [email protected] Phone: (082)300-5456/305-0647 Local 149 Brigida E. Bacani Library Contact Details Email: [email protected] Phone: 300-5456 local 143 Zerdszen P. Ranises – GSTC Facilitator Well-being Welfare Support Email: [email protected] Held Desk Contact Details Phone: 0950-466-5431 CC’s Voice: Hello future psychologist! Welcome to this course PSY 112L: Psychological Statistics. This course provides you with the fundamental concepts of probability theory and statistical inference necessary to effectively employ statistical techniques both from descriptive and inferential statistics to the design, analyze, and interpret psychological studies. Some topics include the nature of statistics, data collection and presentation, probability concepts, probability distributions, normal distribution, hypothesis testing, correlation, regression, and some non-parametric tests. The expected output of the course is the ability to use statistical software as an aid to report and analyze statistical data. Course Outcome: At the end of the course, you are expected to: 1) Apply the principles of statistical techniques in the field of psychology. 2) Interpret results of the statistical data using statistical software. Let’s begin! OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 4  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 At the end of the chapter, you are expected to: a. Define Statistics and its relevance in the field of psychology. b. Identify the population, sample, independent and dependent variables, data, statistic and parameter from the description of a research study. c. Identify the types of data and sampling techniques. d. Summarize and interpret data graphically and numerically. Statistics is the science of conducting studies to collect, organizes, summarize, behaviour and draw conclusions from data. Students study statistics for several reasons: 1. Like professional people, you must be able to read and understand the various statistical studies performed in your fields. To have this understanding, you must be knowledgeable about the vocabulary, symbols, concepts, and statistical procedures used in these studies. 2. You may be called on to conduct research in your field, since statistical procedures are basic to research. To accomplish this, you must be able to design experiments; collect, organize, analyze, and summarize data; and possibly make reliable predictions or forecasts for future use. You must also be able to communicate the results of the study in your own words. OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 5  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 3. You can also use the knowledge gained from studying statistics to become better consumers and citizens. For example, you can make intelligent decisions about what products to purchase based on consumer studies, about government spending based on utilization studies, and so on. Let us get to know some basic terms under statistics. 1. Descriptive Statistics – is concerned with techniques that are used to describe or characterize the obtained data. To illustrate, suppose your biology professor has just recorded the scores from an exam he has recently given you. He hands back the tests and now wants to describe the scores. He might decide to calculate the average of the distribution to describe its central tendency. Perhaps he will also determine its range to characterize its variability. He might also plot the scores on a graph to show the shape of the distribution. Since all of these procedures are for the purpose of describing or characterizing the data already collected, they fall within the realm of descriptive statistics. 2. Inferential Statistics – involves techniques that use the obtained sample data to infer to populations. To illustrate the difference between descriptive and inferential statistics, suppose we were interested in determining the average IQ of the entire freshman class at your university. It would be too costly and time-consuming to measure the IQ of every student in the population, so we would take a random sample of, say, 200 students and give each an IQ test. We would then have 200 sample IQ scores, which we want to use to determine the average IQ in the population. Although we can’t determine the exact value of the population average, we can estimate it using the sample data in conjunction with an inference test called Student’s t test. The results would allow us to make a statement such as, “We are 95% confident that the interval of 115–120 contains the mean IQ of the population.” Here, we are not just describing the obtained scores, as was the case with the biology exam. Rather, we are using the sample scores to infer to a population value. We are therefore in the domain of inferential statistics. 3. Variable – is any property or characteristic of some event, object, or person that may have different values at different times depending on the conditions. Height, weight, reaction time, and drug dosage are examples of variables. 4. Independent Variable – is the variable that is systematically manipulated by the investigator. 5. Dependent Variable – is the variable that the investigator measures to determine the effect of the independent variable. For example, in the experiment studying the effects of alcohol on social behaviour, the amount of alcohol is the independent variable. The social behaviour of the subjects is measured to see whether it is affected by the amount of alcohol consumed. Thus, social behaviour is the dependent variable. OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 6  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 6. Data – is the set of values collected from the variables. There are two types of data exist: 6.1.a. Quantitative data – deals with numbers and things you can measure objectively. These are data that usually expressed in numerical values or obtained by counting or measuring. Example: Height, width, length, speed. 6.1.b. Qualitative data – deals with characteristics and descriptors that can’t be easily measured, but can be observed subjectively—such as smells, tastes, textures, attractiveness, and color. Example: Gender, nationality, religious affiliation, occupation. There are two types of quantitative data 6.2.a. Discrete data – can be assigned values such as 0, 1, 2, 3, … and are said to be countable. The data obtain for this is by means of counting. Example: Number of children in a family, number of calls received 6.2.b. Continuous data – can assume an infinite number of values in an interval between any two specific values. The data for this are obtain by means of direct or indirect measuring. Example: Temperature, weight Levels of Data Measurement 6.3.a Nominal – The numbers representing nominal data are used for naming, labelling or categorizing only. These numbers may serve as labels and have no meaning attached to its magnitude. Example: School ID, Cellphone Number, Jersey Number 6.3.b Ordinal – The numbers are not used to classify items but also reflect some rank or order of the individuals, items or objects. It indicates that object from those in the other categories of the variable but they may also ranked as either higher or lower, bigger or smaller, better or worse than those in the other categories. Example: awards, military ranks, classroom officers 6.3.c Interval – The measurement have all the properties of ordinal data, but in addition the distances between consecutive numbers have meaning. The measurement units are equal to allow us to determine how far apart the two persons or things are. Zero here is another point on the scale and does not mean the absence of the phenomenon. Example: Temperature 6.3.d Ratio – It has the same properties as interval level but the zero here is absolute; that is, it represents the absence of the characteristics being studied. Example: Time, volume See the figure below for better understanding. OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 7  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/ZbdX89M3aM7fY1XTA Figure 1.1 7. Population - is the complete set of individuals, objects, or scores that the investigator is interested in studying. In an actual experiment, the population is the larger group of individuals from which the subjects run in the experiment have been taken. 8. Sample - is a subset of the population. In an experiment, for economical reasons, the investigator usually collects data on a smaller group of subjects than the entire population. This smaller group is called the sample. 9. Statistic - is a number calculated on sample data that quantifies a characteristic of the sample. 10. Parameter - is a number calculated on population data that quantifies characteristics of the population. It should be noted that a statistic and parameter are very similar concepts. The only difference is that a statistic is calculated on a sample and parameter is calculated on a population. OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 8  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 Identify the independent and dependent variables, sample, population, data, statistic and parameter in the statement found below. Example 1: “An educator conducts an experiment to determine whether the mode of presentation affects how well prose material is remembered. For this experiment, the educator uses several prose passages that are presented visually or auditory. Fifty students are selected from the undergraduates attending the university at which the educator works. The students are divided into two groups of 25 students per group. The first group receives a visual presentation of the prose passages, and the second Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/sMTjPGNksbADTQ1T6 group hears the passages through an auditory presentation. At the end of their respective presentations, the subjects are asked to write down as much of the material as they can remember. The average number of words remembered by each group is calculated, and the two group averages are compared to see whether the mode of presentation had an effect.” Independent Variable: Mode of presentation of prose passages (i.e., auditory or visual) Dependent Variable: Number of words remembered Sample: 50 students who participated in the experiment Population: The larger group of individuals from which the sample was taken, namely, the undergraduates attending the university. Data: The number of words recalled by each student in the sample Statistic: The average number of words recalled by each group Parameter: There was no measurement made of any population characteristic, thus, no parameter calculated in this experiment. However, suppose the entire population had been given a visual presentation of the passages. If we calculate the average number of words remembered by the population, the average number would be a parameter because it quantifies a characteristic of the population scores. Example 2: “A professor of gynecology at a prominent school wants to determine whether an experimental birth control implant has side effects on the body weight and depression. A group of 5,000 adult women living in a nearby city volunteers for the experiment. The gynaecologist selects 100 of these women to participate in the study. Fifty of the women are assigned to group 1 and other fifty to group 2 such that the mean body weight and the mean depression scores of each group are equal at the beginning of the experiment. Treatment conditions are the same for both groups, except that the women in group 1 are surgically implanted with the experimental birth control device, whereas the women in group 2 receive a placebo implant. Body weight and depressed mood state are measured at the beginning and end of the experiment. A standardized questionnaire designed to measure degree of depression is used for the mood OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 9  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 state measurement. The higher the score on this questionnaire is, the more depressed the individual is. The mean boy weight and the mean depression scores of each group at the end of the experiment are compared to determine whether the experimental birth control implant had an effect on these variables. To safeguard the women from unwanted pregnancy, another method of birth control that does not interact with the implant is used for the duration of the experiment. Independent variable: The experimental birth control implant versus the placebo. Dependent variable: Body weight and depressed mood state. Sample: 100 women who participated in the experiment. Population: 5000 women who volunteered for the experiment. Data: The individual body weight and depression scores of the 100 women at the beginning and end of the experiment. Statistic:  Mean body weight of group 1 at the beginning of the experiment,  Mean body weight of group 1 at the end of the experiment,  Mean depression score of group 1 at the beginning of the experiment,  Mean depression score of group 1 at the end of the experiment,  Plus the same four statistics for group 2. Parameter: No parameters were given or computed in this experiment. If the gynecologist had measured the body weights of all 5000 volunteers at the beginning of the experiment, the mean of these 5000 weights would be a parameter. 11. Sampling - is defined as the process of selecting certain members or a subset of the population to make statistical inferences from them and to estimate characteristics of the whole population. There are two types of Sampling Techniques 11.1. Probability Sampling Techniques - is a sampling technique in which sample from a larger population are chosen using a method based on the theory of probability, that is every member of the population has equal chance to be selected. Types of Probability Sampling Technique 11.1.a. Simple Random Sampling - it is a method of obtaining information where every single member of a population is chosen randomly, merely by chance and each individual has the exact same probability of being chosen to be a part of a sample. Example: Nursing supervisors are selected using random numbers to determine annual salaries. 11.1.b Cluster Sampling – is a method where the researchers divide the entire population into sections or clusters that represent a population. Clusters are identified and included in a sample on the basis of defining demographic parameters such as age, location, sex etc. which makes it extremely easy for a survey creator to derive effective inference from the feedback. Example: In a large school district, all teachers from two buildings are interviewed to determine whether they believe the students have less homework to do now than in previous years. OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 10  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 11.1.c. Systematic Sampling - it is a method where members of a sample are chosen at regular intervals of a population. It requires selection of a starting point for the sample and sample size that can be repeated at regular intervals. This type of sampling method has a predefined interval and hence this sampling technique is the least time-consuming. Example: Every seventh customer entering a shopping mall is asked to select her or his favorite store. 11.1.d. Stratified Random Sampling - is a method where the population can be divided into smaller groups, that don’t overlap but represent the entire population together. While sampling, these groups can be organized and then draw a sample from each group separately. Example: Mail carriers of a large city are divided into four groups according to gender (male or female) and according to whether they walk or ride on their routes. Then 10 are selected from each group and interviewed to determine whether they have been bitten by a dog in the last year. (1–3) 11.2. Non-Probability Sampling Techniques - is a sampling technique in which the researcher selects samples based on the subjective judgment of the researcher rather than random selection. Types of Non-Probability Sampling Technique 11.2.a. Convenience Sampling - This method is dependent on the ease of access to subjects such as surveying customers at a mall or passers-by on a busy street. It is usually termed as convenience sampling, as it’s carried out on the basis of how easy is it for a researcher to get in touch with the subjects. Researchers have nearly no authority over selecting elements of the sample and it’s purely done on the basis of proximity and not representativeness. 11.2.b. Judgemental or Purposive Sampling - the sample is formed by the discretion of the judge purely considering the purpose of study along with the understanding of target audience. Also known as deliberate sampling, the participants are selected solely on the basis of research requirements and elements who do not suffice the purpose are kept out of the sample. 11.2.c. Snowball Sampling - is a sampling method that is used in studies which need to be carried out to understand subjects which are difficult to trace. Researchers can track a few of that particular category to interview and results will be derived on that basis. This sampling method is implemented in situations where the topic is highly sensitive and not openly discussed such as conducting surveys to gather information about HIV Aids. Not many victims will readily respond to the questions but researchers can contact people they might know or volunteers associated with the cause to get in touch with the victims and collect information. 11.2.d. Quota Sampling - selection of members in this sampling technique happens on basis of a pre-set standard. In this case, as a sample is formed on basis of specific attributes, the created sample will have the same attributes that are found in the total population. It is an extremely quick method of collecting samples. OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 11  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 You can also refer to the sources below to help you understand the lesson. 1. Bluman, A. (2012). Elementary Statistics: A Step by Step Approach 8th Edition. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 2. Pagano, R. (2009). Understanding Statistics in the Behavioral Sciences 9th Edition. Wadsworth Cengage Learning. 3. https://blog.minitab.com/blog/understanding-statistics/understanding-qualitative- quantitative-attribute-discrete-and-continuous-data-types 4. https://www.questionpro.com/blog/types-of-sampling-for-social-research/ OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 12  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 ACTIVITY 1 1. For each statement, decide whether descriptive or inferential statistics is used. ___________1. The average life expectancy in New Zealand is 78.49 years. (Source: World Factbook) ___________2. A diet high in fruits and vegetables will lower blood pressure. (Source: Institute of Medicine) ___________3. The total amount of estimated losses for Hurricane Katrina was $125 billion. (Source: The World Almanac and Book of Facts) ___________4. Researchers stated that the shape of a person’s ears is relative to the person’s aggression. (Source: American Journal of Human Biology) ___________5. In 2013, the number of high school graduates will be 3.2 million students. (Source: National Center for Education) 2. Classify each variable as discrete or continuous. ___________6. Ages of people working in a large factory. ___________7. Number of cups of coffee served at a restaurant. ___________8. The amount of drug injections into a guinea pig. ___________9. The time it takes a student to drive to school. ___________10. The number of gallons of milk sold each day at grocery store. ___________11. Monthly savings. ___________12. Number of orders delivered by Food Panda driver. ___________13. Amount of alcohol intake. ___________14. Electric bill ___________15. Amount of chemicals put for hair color. 3. Classify the following data according to its level of measurement. ___________16. Zip Code ___________23. Exam Score ___________17. Grade (A, A+, B, B+, ___________24. Stages of Life C, F) ___________25. Salary ___________18. Nationality ___________26. IQ ___________19. Eye color ___________27. Age ___________20. Height ___________28. Religious Affiliation ___________21. Distance ___________29. Rating Scale ___________22. Number of children ___________30. Year of birth OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 13  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 ACTIVITY 2 In each of the experiments, specify the independent variable, dependent variable, sample, population, data, statistic and parameter. 1. A health psychologist is interested in whether fear motivation is effective in reducing the incidence of smoking. Forty adult smokers are selected from individuals residing in the city in which the psychologist works. Twenty are asked to smoke a cigarette, after which they see a gruesome film about how smoking causes cancer. Vivid pictures of the diseased lungs and other internal organs of deceased smokers are shown in an effort to instil fear of smoking in these subjects. The other group receives the same treatment, except they see a neutral film that is unrelated to smoking. For 2 months after showing the film, the experimenter keeps records on the number of cigarettes smoked daily by the participants. A mean for each group is then computed of the number of cigarettes smoked daily since seeing the film, and these means are compared to determine whether the fear-inducing film had an effect on smoking. 2. A clinical psychologist is interested in evaluating three methods of treating depression: medication, cognitive restructuring, and exercise. A fourth treatment condition, a waiting-only treatment group, is included to provide a baseline control group. Sixty depressed students are recruited from the undergraduate student body at a large state university, and fifteen are assigned to each treatment method. Treatments are administered for 6 months, after which each student is given a questionnaire designed to measure the degree of depression. The questionnaire is scaled from 0 to 100, with higher scores indicating a higher degree of depression. The mean depression values are then computed for the four treatments and compared to determine the relative effectiveness of each treatment. 3. A cognitive psychologist is interested in how retention is affected by the spacing of practice sessions. A sample of 30 seventh graders is selected from a local junior high school and divided into three groups of 10 students in each group. All students are asked to memorize a list of 15 words and are given three practice sessions, each 5 minutes long, in which to do so. Practice sessions for group 1 subjects are spaced 10 minutes apart; for group 2, 20 minutes apart; and for group 3, 30 minutes apart. All groups are given a retention test 1 hour after the last practice session. Results are recorded as the number of words correctly recalled in the test period. Mean values are computed for each group and compared. OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 14  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 ACTIVITY 1 Getting acquainted with the essential terms and concepts of statistics, it is now time for you to explain thoroughly your answers to the following questions. 1. Explain the importance of Statistics in the field of psychology. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 2. State the difference between ratio scale and interval scale. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 3. What important property do interval scales have that ordinal and nominal scales do not have? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 4. Why does the researcher take sample data from the population? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 5. Explain the importance of sampling technique. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 15  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 ACTIVITY 1 Based from the definition of the most essential terms and concepts in statistics and the learning exercises that you have done, write your arguments or lessons learned below. 1. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 2. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 3. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 4. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 5. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 16  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 Do you have any question for clarification? Questions / Issues Answers 1. 1. 2. 2. 3. 3. 4. 4. 5. 5. OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 17  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 To demonstrate ULO-d, some unfamiliar terms but essential will be defined to understand this chapter. You will encounter these terms as we go through this chapter. Please refer to these definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in understanding some concepts. 1. Class Interval - one set of score values in a grouped frequency distribution. 2. Data set - a collection of data values 3. Frequency - the number of values in a specific class of a frequency distribution. 4. Range - the highest data value minus the lowest data value. In chapter 1, data is defined as set of values collected from the variables. In this chapter let’s talk about how data can be collected, then organize and how it be properly presented. Data can be collected in a variety of ways. One of the most common methods is through the use of surveys. Surveys can be done by using a variety of methods. Three of the most common methods are the telephone survey, the mailed questionnaire, and the personal interview. a. Telephone surveys have an advantage over personal interview surveys in that they are less costly. Also, people may be more candid in their opinions since there is no face to face contact. A major drawback to the telephone survey is that some people in the population will not have phones or will not answer when the calls are made; hence, not all people have a chance of being surveyed. Also, many people now have unlisted numbers and cell phones, so they cannot be surveyed. Finally, even the tone of the voice of the interviewer might influence the response of the person who is being interviewed. b. Mailed questionnaire surveys can be used to cover a wider geographic area than telephone surveys or personal interviews since mailed questionnaire surveys are less expensive to conduct. Also, respondents can remain anonymous if they desire. Disadvantages of mailed questionnaire surveys include a low number of responses OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 18  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 and inappropriate answers to questions. Another drawback is that some people may have difficulty reading or understanding the questions. c. Personal interview surveys have the advantage of obtaining in-depth responses to questions from the person being interviewed. One disadvantage is that interviewers must be trained in asking questions and recording responses, which makes the personal interview survey more costly than the other two survey methods. Another disadvantage is that the interviewer may be biased in his or her selection of respondents. After the researcher gather the data for the particular variable under study. To describe situations, draw conclusions, or make inferences about events, the researcher must organize the data in some meaningful way. The most convenient method of organizing data is to construct a frequency distribution. Frequency distribution is the organization of raw data in table form, using classes and frequencies. It presents the score values and their frequency of occurrence. When presented in a table, the score values are listed in rank order, with the lowest score value usually at the bottom of the table. There are two types of frequency distributions, namely; categorical frequency distribution and grouped frequency distribution. Categorical frequency distribution is used for data that can be placed in specific categories, such as nominal- or ordinal-level data. For example, data such as political affiliation, religious affiliation, or major field of study would use categorical frequency distributions. (See a sample of categorical frequency distribution shown below). Example 1: Twenty-five army inductees were given a blood test to determine their blood type. The data set is A B B AB O O O B AB B B B O A O A O O O AB AB A O B A Construct a frequency distribution for the data. Solution: Since the data are categorical, discrete classes can be used. There are four blood types: A, B, O, and AB. These types will be used as the classes for the distribution. To construct frequency distribution using categorical data, the following steps must be observed. OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 19  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 Step 1 Make a table as shown. Blood Type Tally Frequency A B AB O Step 2 Tally the data and place the results in the second column. Blood Type Tally Frequency A IIII B IIII – II AB IIII – IIII O IIII Step 3 Count the tallies and place the results in the third column. Blood Type Tally Frequency A IIII 5 B IIII – II 7 O IIII – IIII 9 AB IIII 4 TOTAL 25 *Note: It is important to remember to put extra careful in tallying. A lot of people overlooked some data, so make sure that the total number of raw scores is equal to the total frequency. Base from the result, more people have type O blood than any other type. Another type of distribution is Grouped frequency distribution. This is used when the data are too many and numerical. In this distribution, data are classified according to its computed class interval. (See a sample of grouped frequency distribution shown below.) OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 20  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 Example 2: Supposed a researcher wished to do a study on the ages of 50-person experienced mental health problems during the pandemic crisis brought by COVID-19. 49 57 38 73 81 74 59 76 65 69 54 56 69 68 78 65 85 49 69 61 48 81 68 37 43 78 82 43 64 67 52 56 81 77 79 85 40 85 59 80 60 71 57 61 69 61 83 90 87 74 Solution To organize data using frequency distribution: STEP 1: Find the range. Range = Highest score – Lowest score In the data found above, the highest age is 90 and the lowest age is 37. So, R = 90 – 37 = 53. The range is 53. STEP 2: Determine the desired number of class interval. To determine the desired number of class interval, use Sturges’ rule. = +. where is the number of data In the data, where = 50, so; = 1 + 3.3 log (50) = 1 + 3.3 (1.699) = 1 + 5.6067 = 6.6067 =7 (Round to whole number) STEP 3: Determine the class size. ( ) = ( ) From the previous computation where = 53 and = 7, so; 53 = 7 = 7.571 = 8 (Round to whole number) Since the , and are available, we can partially draft the frequency distribution table. For a frequency distribution, it is better to write the lower class in the bottom part of the distribution. OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 21  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 Class Tally Frequency Interval 85 – 92 77 – 84 69 – 76 61 – 68 53 – 60 45 – 52 37 – 44 To figure out where and in the problem, refers to desired number of class interval. In the problem, there are 7 class intervals, namely, 37 - 44, 45 - 52, 53 - 60, 61 - 68, 69 - 76, 77 - 84 and 85 - 92. All class intervals have 8 as class size. To visually figure out the 8 as class size, try to count the 8 data found in the class interval of 37 - 44. There are 8 data these are 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43 and 44. STEP 4: Tallying the scores. The raw scores are tallied into the appropriate class intervals. Tallying is a procedure whereby one systematically goes through the distribution and for each raw score enters a tally mark next to the interval that contains the score. Class Tally Frequency Interval 85 – 92 IIII 5 77 – 84 IIII – IIII 10 69 – 76 IIII – IIII 9 61 – 68 IIII – IIII 9 53 – 60 IIII – III 8 45 – 52 IIII 4 37 – 44 IIII - 5 TOTAL 50 *Note: Same with categorical frequency distribution, it is important to remember to put extra careful in tallying. A lot of people overlooked some data, so make sure that the total number of raw scores is equal to the total frequency. Now some general observations can be made from looking at the frequency distribution. For example, it can be stated that the ages of people prone to have mental health issues in the study are ages approaching 60 years old and above. After you have organized the data into a frequency distribution, you can present them in graphical form. The purpose of graphs in statistics is to convey the data to the viewers in pictorial form. It is easier for most people to comprehend the meaning of data presented graphically than data presented numerically in tables or frequency distributions. This is especially true if the users have little or no statistical knowledge. OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 22  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 Statistical graphs can be used to describe the data set or to analyze it. Graphs are also useful in getting the audience’s attention in a publication or a speaking presentation. They can be used to discuss an issue, reinforce a critical point, or summarize a data set. They can also be used to discover a trend or pattern in a situation over a period of time. The three most commonly used graphs in research are 1. The histogram. 2. The frequency polygon. 3. The cumulative frequency graph, or ogive (pronounced o-jive). The Histogram Example: Given a frequency table which represents the data for the recorded high temperatures for each of the 50 states, construct a histogram. Class Interval Frequency 130 – 134 1 125 – 129 1 120 – 124 7 115 – 119 13 110 – 114 18 105 – 109 8 100 – 104 2 Solution STEP 1: Find the class boundaries of the given class interval. Class boundaries is the upper and lower values of a class for a grouped frequency distribution whose values have additional ±0.050 decimal place in both upper and lower values of each class. In this case, the class boundaries in every class interval are shown in the table below. Class Interval Frequency Class Boundaries 130 – 134 1 129.5 – 134.5 125 – 129 1 124.5 – 129.5 120 – 124 7 119.5 – 124.5 115 – 119 13 114.5 – 119.5 OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 23  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 110 – 114 18 109.5 – 114.5 105 – 109 8 104.5 – 109.5 100 – 104 2 99.5 – 104.5 STEP 2: Draw and label the x and y axes. The x axis is always the horizontal axis, and the y axis is always the vertical axis. STEP 3: Represent the frequency on the y axis and the class boundaries on the x axis. STEP 4: Using the frequencies as the heights, draw vertical bars for each class. See Figure 2–1. Figure 2-1 As the histogram shows, the class with the greatest number of data values (18) is 109.5–114.5, followed by 13 for 114.5–119.5. The graph also has one peak with the data clustering around it. The Frequency Polygon Another way to represent the same data set is by using a frequency polygon. OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 24  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 Example: Given a frequency table which represents the data for the recorded high temperatures for each of the 50 states, construct a frequency polygon. Class Interval Frequency 130 – 134 1 125 – 129 1 120 – 124 7 115 – 119 13 110 – 114 18 105 – 109 8 100 – 104 2 Solution STEP 1: Find the midpoints of each class. Recall that midpoints are found by adding the upper and lower limit of the class interval and then dividing it by 2. For example, for class interval of 100 – 104 and 105 – 109, the midpoints are 102 and 107, respectively. 100 + 104 204 = = 2 2 105 + 109 214 = = 2 2 So the midpoints of the class intervals are: Class Interval Frequency Midpoints 130 – 134 1 132 125 – 129 1 127 120 – 124 7 122 115 – 119 13 117 110 – 114 18 112 105 – 109 8 107 100 – 104 2 102 STEP 2: Draw the x and y axes. Label the x axis with the midpoint of each class, and then use a suitable scale on the y axis for the frequencies. STEP 3: Using the midpoints for the x values and the frequencies as the y values, plot the points. OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 25  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 STEP 4: Connect adjacent points with line segments. Draw a line back to the x axis at the beginning and end of the graph, at the same distance that the previous and next midpoints would be located, as shown in Figure 2–2. Figure 2-2 The frequency polygon and the histogram are two different ways to represent the same data set. The choice of which one to use is left to the discretion of the researcher. The Ogive The third type of graph that can be used represents the cumulative frequencies for the classes. This type of graph is called the cumulative frequency graph, or ogive. The cumulative frequency is the sum of the frequencies accumulated up to the upper boundary of a class in the distribution. Example: Given a frequency table which represents the data for the recorded high temperatures for each of the 50 states, construct an ogive. Class Interval Frequency 130 – 134 1 125 – 129 1 120 – 124 7 115 – 119 13 110 – 114 18 OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 26  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 105 – 109 8 100 – 104 2 Solution STEP 1: Find the cumulative frequency for each class. To compute the less than cumulative frequency, start adding the frequency of the lowest class interval to the frequency of the preceding class interval. Repeat the process until it reaches the highest-class interval. Less than Class Interval Frequency cumulative frequency 130 – 134 1 49 + 1 = 50 125 – 129 1 48 + 1 = 49 120 – 124 7 41 + 7 = 48 115 – 119 13 28 + 13 = 41 110 – 114 18 10 + 18 = 28 105 – 109 8 2 + 8 = 10 100 – 104 2 0+ 2=2 STEP 2: Draw the x and y axes. Label the x axis with the class boundaries. Use an appropriate scale for the y axis to represent the cumulative frequencies. (Depending on the numbers in the cumulative frequency columns, scales such as 0, 1, 2, 3,... , or 5, 10, 15, 20,... , or 1000, 2000, 3000,... can be used. Do not label the y axis with the numbers in the cumulative frequency column.) In this example, a scale of 0, 5, 10, 15,... will be used. STEP 3: Plot the cumulative frequency at each upper-class boundary, as shown in Figure 2– 3. Upper boundaries are used since the cumulative frequencies represent the number of data values accumulated up to the upper boundary of each class. Figure 2-3 OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 27  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 STEP 4: Starting with the first upper class boundary, 104.5, connect adjacent points with line segments, as shown in Figure 2–4. Then extend the graph to the first lower class boundary, 99.5, on the x axis. Figure 2-4 Cumulative frequency graphs are used to visually represent how many values are below a certain upper-class boundary. For example, to find out how many record high temperatures are less than 114.5° , locate 114.5° on the x axis, draw a vertical line up until it intersects the graph, and then draw a horizontal line at that point to the y axis. The y axis value is 28, as shown in Figure 2–5. Figure 2-5 OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 28  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 Other Types of Graphs In addition to the histogram, the frequency polygon, and the ogive, several other types of graphs are often used in statistics. These are the bar graph, time series graph, and pie graph. a. Bar graph - represents the data by using vertical or horizontal bars whose heights or lengths represent the frequencies of the data. This graph is used for comparison. Example: The table shows the number of suicidal cases in the Philippines of male and female ages 15-24 year old in 2005. Draw a vertical bar graph using the data. No. of Suicidal Gender case Male 3,590 Female 1,090 Source: BMC Public Health Solution 2005 Suicidal Case in the Philippines Step 1: Draw and label the x and y axes. For the horizontal bar graph place the frequency scale on the x axis, and for the vertical bar graph place the frequency scale on the y axis. Step 2: Draw the bars corresponding to the frequencies. Figure 2-6 b. Pie graph - is a circle that is divided into sections or wedges according to the percentage of frequencies in each category of the distribution. The purpose of this graph is to show the relationship of the parts to the whole by visually comparing the sizes of the sections. OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 29  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 Example: The table below shows the 24-hr activity of Karen, a working college student. Construct a pie chart showing the percentage of her daily activity. ACTIVITY NO. OF HOURS Sleep 7 Work 8 Attend classes 4 Travelling time (from house to 2 work to school & vice versa) Essential activity (eating, taking a bath, cooking, attend 2 personal staff, etc.) Doing school related tasks 1 Solution: STEP 1: Compute the percentage in every category. To do this, simply divide the total frequency to every category. See the computation below. STEP 2: Since there are 360° in a circle, to convert percentage to the degrees multiply the decimal value of percentage of every category to 360° to get the proportional part of the circle or pie. NO. OF ACTIVITY PERCENTAGE DEGREES HOURS 7 Sleep 7 × 100% = % 0.29 × 360° = ° 24 8 Work 8 × 100% = % 0.34 × 360° = ° 24 4 Attend classes 4 × 100% = % 0.17 × 360° = ° 24 Travelling time (from 2 house to work to 2 × 100% = % 0.08 × 360° = ° school & vice versa) 24 Essential activity (eating, taking a bath, 2 2 × 100% = % 0.08 × 360° = ° cooking, attend 24 personal staff, etc.) Doing school related 1 1 × 100% = % 0.04 × 360° = ° tasks 24 TOTAL 24 100% ° OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 30  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 STEP 3: Construct a pie chart based on the corresponding degrees in every category. Figure 2-7 c. Time-series graph - represents data that occur over a specific period of time. It is best used to established trends. Example: The number of homicides that occurred in the workplace for the years 2003 to 2008 is shown. Draw and analyze a time series graph for the data. Year 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Number 632 559 567 540 628 517 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics Solution: Number of Homicides in a Workplace Step 1: Draw and label the x and y axes. Number of cases Step 2: Label the x axis for years and the y axis for the number. Step 3: Plot each point according to the table. Step 4: Draw a line segments connecting adjacent points. Year Figure 2-8 OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 31  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 Data can be presented by the following: 1. Textual Presentation - presents data in a paragraph form which combines text and figures. 2. Tabular Presentation - presents data on tables. Tabulation is a process of condensing classified data and arranging them in a table where data can readily be understood, and comparisons can be done more easily. This type of presentation is more effective in showing relationships and comparisons of numerical data. 3. Semi-tabular Presentation - employs both the textual and tabular presentation of data. This type of presentation is commonly used by any researchers in research. 4. Graphical Presentation - is the most effective method of presenting statistical results and can present clear pictures of numerical data. You can also refer to the sources below to help you understand the lesson. 1. Bluman, A. (2012). Elementary Statistics: A Step by Step Approach 8th Edition. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 2. Pagano, R. (2009). Understanding Statistics in the Behavioral Sciences 9th Edition. Wadsworth Cengage Learning. 3. https://www.slideshare.net/marksantos7923/construction-of-a-frequency-table OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 32  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 ACTIVITY 1 Now that you know the most essential concepts on summarizing data through frequency distribution, let us try to check your understanding of these concepts. 1. A survey was conducted to 50 college students on what type of multiple intelligence by Howard Gardner are they belong. The results are shown below. 1 5 5 1 3 5 5 2 2 4 4 1 4 5 2 1 3 3 2 3 6 3 3 8 3 6 2 6 3 1 9 2 3 3 2 3 7 3 5 2 3 4 1 2 2 4 8 4 2 8 Construct a frequency distribution table. (Note: 1 = visual/spatial intelligence, 2 = verbal/linguistic intelligence, 3 = mathematical/logical intelligence, 4 = bodily/kinesthetic intelligence, 5 = musical/rhythmic intelligence, 6 = intrapersonal intelligence, 7 = interpersonal intelligence, 8 = naturalist intelligence, 9 = existentialist) 2. Below are the IQ scores of 90 freshmen students taking BS Psychology in a 100-item standardized test, organize the data using grouped frequency distribution table and then construct a histogram, frequency polygon and ogive. 99 65 98 55 63 97 57 79 98 68 84 73 50 95 72 86 85 58 55 51 65 82 99 86 94 42 32 33 100 78 51 93 71 33 62 68 72 74 49 98 65 100 54 86 77 80 45 61 73 75 90 64 94 28 35 60 65 83 24 48 82 52 69 55 58 83 72 60 22 47 96 46 62 92 76 89 43 67 81 30 53 92 44 95 37 90 76 28 97 38 OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 33  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 ACTIVITY 2 Now that you know the most essential concepts on presenting data through graphs, let us try to check your understanding of these concepts. 1. Construct a vertical bar chart for the total number of hurricanes by month from 1851 to 2008 and make some interpretation base on the graph. MONTH NO. OF HURRICANES May 18 June 79 July 101 August 344 September 459 October 280 November 61 Source: National Hurricane Center 2. The safety record of U.S. airlines for 10 years is shown. Construct a time series graph for the data and make some interpretation. MAJOR YEAR ACCIDENTS 1997 2 1998 0 1999 2 2000 3 2001 1 2002 1 2003 2 2004 4 2005 2 2006 2 2007 0 Source: National Transportation Safety Board OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 34  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 3. The following data are based on a survey from American Travel Survey on why people travel. Construct a pie graph for the data and analyse the results. PURPOSE NUMBER Personal business 146 Visit friends or relatives 330 Work-related 225 Leisure 299 Source: USA Today OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 35  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 ACTIVITY 1 Getting acquainted with the essential terms and concepts of statistics, it is now time for you to explain thoroughly your answers to the following questions. 1. For each type of graph presented in the chapter 2 of this module, explain each of its purpose. a. Histogram ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ b. Frequency polygon ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ c. Ogive ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ d. Bar graph ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ e. Pie chart ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ f. Time series graph ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ How do bar graphs and histograms differ in construction? What type of scaling is appropriate for each? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 36  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 3. A graduate student has collected data involving 66 scores. Based on these data, he has constructed two frequency distributions of grouped scores. These are shown below. Do you see anything wrong with these distributions? Explain. Table 1 Table 2 __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 4. PhilStar Global presented a graph of the number of reported COVID-19 cases in the Philippines dated from March 5 to April 26 and asked the Filipinos by this question, “With the quarantine measures being extended until May 15, is the number of new COVID-19 cases reported daily declining?” Evaluate the appropriateness of the graph presented to the question that been asked. ________________________________ ________________________________ ________________________________ ________________________________ ________________________________ ________________________________ ________________________________ ________________________________ ________________________________ ________________________________ ________________________________ ________________________________ ________________________________ Source: Philstar.com OBD - Psychological Statistics (Psy 112L) 37  College of Arts and Sciences Education Bachelor of Science in Psychology 2nd Floor, DPT Building, Matina Campus, Davao City Phone No.: (082) 300 -5456 / 300-0647 Local 134 ACTIVITY 1 Based on the concept on data presentation and the learning exercises that you have done, write your arguments or lessons learned below. 1. _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ ______