Nursing Research Notes PDF

INTRODUCTION Research - a systematic inquiry that uses disciplined methods to answer questions and solve problems. - The ultimate goal of research is to develop, refine, and expand a body of knowledge. Nursing research - is a systematic inquiry designed to develop knowledg...

INTRODUCTION Research - a systematic inquiry that uses disciplined methods to answer questions and solve problems. - The ultimate goal of research is to develop, refine, and expand a body of knowledge. Nursing research - is a systematic inquiry designed to develop knowledge about issues of importance to nurses, including nursing practice, nursing education, administration, and informatics. - Nursing research is a careful and organized way of studying things that are important to nurses. It aims to find new information or improve what we already know about areas like how nurses care for patients, how nursing is taught, how healthcare is managed, and how technology is used in nursing. Clinical Nursing Research - research designed to guide nursing practice and to improve the health and quality of life of nurses’ clients. - is a type of research specifically focused on improving nursing practice and the health outcomes of patients. The goal is to address practical issues that nurses encounter in their daily work and to develop evidence-based strategies that can enhance patient care and quality of life. - Clinical nursing research typically begins with questions stemming from practice-related problems—problems such as ones you may have already encountered. - Focus on Practice-Related Problems: The research often starts with questions or problems that arise during nursing practice. For example, a nurse might notice that a particular wound care technique isn't as effective as it could be, or that patients with a certain condition aren't responding well to standard treatments. These observations can lead to research questions aimed at finding better methods or interventions. According to Palispis (2004), research plays a very significant role in education. Research is carried out for a specific purpose– to answer specific questions or to solve a particular controversy or issue. Thus, research must not only be conducted because it is a prerequisite to obtaining a degree, but more so because it can potentially mobilize society. According to Sanchez ( 2002), it is the continuing discovery and exploration of the unknown. It entails an investigation of new facts leading to the discovery of new ideas, new methods and improvements. Examples of nursing research questions: * Among current smokers, are more sources of secondhand smoke exposure associated with higher nicotine dependence and lower intention to quit smoking? (Okoli, Browning, Rayens, &Hahn,2008)  * What are the late effects of cancer treatment among long-term cancer survivors, and what are ways in which survivors find support and information that are not provided via follow-up care?(Klemm,2008) SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 1. Scientific Scientific Knowledge (1) - Undergo series of observation and analysis before they come up with knowledge - Measurement and testing of knowledge - Systematic and methodological - Inductive approaches - research that collect and analyze data to develop theory - involves developing general principles or theories from specific observations or data. In other words, it moves from the specific to the general. - starts with observations and leads to a broader theory - Three stages: 1. Observation- make a detailed observation done by a survey or interview 2. Pattern recognition - they identify patterns, trends, or relationships in the data. 3. Theory development - from these patterns, they develop broader generalizations, hypotheses, or theories. - ex: qualitative research; A nurse notices that several elderly patients with a particular condition tend to have a specific reaction to a certain medication. Over time, with enough observations, the nurse might conclude that this reaction is common among elderly patients with that condition. This observation could lead to a hypothesis or theory that could be tested in further research. - Deductive approaches - type of research that has already a theory (you are trying to confirm or verify the effect of the theory) - starts with a general theory or hypothesis and tests it through specific observations or experiments. It moves from the general to the specific. - starts with a theory or hypothesis and seeks to confirm it with specific data. - usually come up from assumption (Assumption are test through observation and data collection like questionnaires) - 5 Steps: 1. Formulation of hypothesis (assumptions) 2. Design a research study 3. Collection of data (survey, experiments, observation) 4. Analysis of data (needs to use statistical methods) 5. Drawing a conclusion (when hypothesis is accepted you can now create a generalization)  - ex: quantitative research, A nursing researcher starts with the hypothesis that a particular intervention will reduce pain in postoperative patients. They then conduct a study, applying the intervention to a specific group of patients and measuring the outcomes to see if it supports the hypothesis. Scientific Knowledge (2) - Qualitative methods - in depth in nature; expressed in words; interviewing and making follow up questions (open-ended questions); used to understand concepts, thoughts, and experiences of individuals - focuses on exploring and understanding the meaning of experiences, concepts, or phenomena. - It seeks to understand the "why" and "how" of a situation. - Quantitative methods - expressed in numbers or graphs; presents in ranking and graphs; used to test theories and assumptions; used to prove assumptions - focuses on quantifying data and using statistical analysis to test hypotheses or examine relationships between variables - It seeks to determine the "what," "where," and "when." - Mixed methods - used both qualitative and quantitative; to expand evidences that are gathered; improves the credibility of results finding 2. Tradition Tradition (1) - Knowledge passed down through generations of nurses. - Can be conveyed through observed practice, role modeling, written documents, books, journal articles, and often from ‘experienced’ practitioners. Tradition (2) - Traditional practices can be imposed: ‘This is the way it should be done because this is the way it has always been done.’ - Can lead to the development of a nursing culture that accepts practices as being right, without questioning their foundation and evidence base. 3. Intuition and tacit Intuition and implied knowledge - Intuition - thinking, vision, implied - Drawing on experience and knowledge to make a careful judgment. - Developed through experience gained by engagement in practice. - Can be criticized for a lack of objectivity and ability to identify a rationale behind decisions. 4. Personal knowledge  Personal knowledge - Personal knowledge is individual knowledge shaped through being personally involved in situations and events in practice. - Personal knowledge can be developed through reflecting on practice experiences. - Personal knowledge can reflect a range of experiences and be based on a few sources of knowledge. CHARACTERISTICS OF NURSING RESEARCH 1. systematic - organize way of approaching a task, follow series of stages 2.objective - a question or sentence that summarize the purpose of conducting the study, set your purpose 3. feasible - capable of being done or carried out( is it possible), sample size is enough, variable can be measured and there is enough resources and expertise 4. empirical - conducted by observation and measured phenomenon 5. clear PURPOSES OF NURSING RESEARCH 1. Nursing research provides a scientific basis for the practices or methodologies used in nursing care management. 2. Nursing research is undertaken for the continuous development of and further productivity in healthcare. 3. Nursing research develops tools for assessing the effectiveness of nursing interventions. 4. Nursing research provides solutions to problems concerning health maintenance, health delivery, and healthcare. 5. Nursing research develops and evaluates alternative approaches to nursing education that enable the students to gain broader knowledge and specialized skills for safe practice. 6. Nursing research experience advances the personal and professional qualification of a nursing practitioner. TYPES OF NURSING RESEARCH 1. Basic or Pure research - is undertaken to extend the base of knowledge in a discipline. - A researcher may perform an in-depth study to better understand normal grieving processes, without having explicit applications in mind. - Having a basic understanding about the happenings that can affect the life of people 2. Applied research - focuses on finding solutions to existing problems.  - An applied study might assess the effectiveness of a nursing intervention to ease grieving. Identification - Quantitative example of description: Carls (2007) described the prevalence of stress urinary incontinence in young female athletes participating in high impact sports, and therateat which they had told someone of their problem. Exploration - Qualitative example of exploration: Cristobal and colleagues (2008) explored the experience of cancer pain in African American patients with cancer through a 6-month online forum. Prediction and Control - Research has shown that the incidence of Down syndrome in infants increases with the age of the mother. We can thus predict that a woman aged 40 years is at higher risk of bearing a child with Down syndrome than is a woman aged 25 years. Explanation - In qualitative studies, researchers may search for explanations about how or why a phenomenon exists or what a phenomenon means as a basis for developing a theory that is grounded in rich, in-depth, experiential evidence. Explanation - Blue (2007) tested a theoretical model to explain physical activity and dietary patterns among adults at risk for diabetes. The model purported to explain positive health behaviors based on theoretically relevant concepts, such as subjective norms and perceived behavioral control. Explanation - Qualitative example of explanation: Coughlan and Ward (2007) conducted a study that sought to explain the meaning of “quality of care” for recently relocated residents from two older hospital-style facilities to a new long-term care facility in Canada. Treatment or Intervention - Grove and colleagues (2008) tested the effectiveness of an intervention that included acupressure and interactive multimedia on visual acuity in school-aged children with visual impairment. GOALS IN CONDUCTING RESEARCH 1. To produce evidence-based nursing practice. - A Prof. Nurse must ensure that she/he is able to give proper health care to patient through: a. Provide best clinical practice proven by research. b. Principles on which the tasks and functions of a nurse are based and formulated through research.  c. Sop’s (statement of problem) and guidelines in the hospitals are based from research. d. Results of nursing research must be published in books and journals. e. Results can also be utilized in seminars and conferences. 2. To establish credibility in the nursing profession. - Nursing profession is distinct. Its distinctiveness can be achieved when there are special practices and peculiarities of services in a given area or field. Research is essential to produce new procedures, programs and practices. 3. To observe accountability in nursing practice. - Every action by a nurse must have a rationale. The nurse must be accountable for each task she/he performs. 4. To promote cost-effectiveness through documentation of nursing care. - The findings of research must be shared with and utilized by the individuals, group community for which it was intended. ROLES OF NURSES IN NURSING RESEARCH 1. Principal investigator - investigate a case in a particular local; the cause of the problem, what group of people being affected 2. Member of the research team 3. Identifier of researchable problems - identify problems that usually experience by the people 4. Evaluator of research findings - evaluate what happened after implementing a certain activity such as the effectiveness of that activity 5. User of research findings - 6. Patient/client advocate during study 7. Subject/respondent/participant HISTORY OF RESEARCH Year Event 1859 Nightingale’s Notes on Nursing is published 1900 American Nursing Journal begins publication 1923 Columbia University establishes first doctoral program for nurses Goldmark Report with recommendations for nursing education published 1955 Inauguration of the American Nurses’ Foundation to sponsor nursing research 1957 Establishment of nursing research center at Walter Reed Army Institute 1963 International Journal of Nursing Studies begins publication 1965 American Nurses’ Association (ANA) begins sponsoring nursing research conferences 1969 Canadian Journal of Nursing Research begins publication 1971 ANA establishes a Commission on Research 1972 ANA establishes its Council of Nurse Researchers 1976 Stetler and Marram publish guidelines on assessing research for use in practice 1978 The journals Research in Nursing & Health and Advances in Nursing Science begin publication 1979 Western Journal of Nursing Research begins publication 1982 The Conduct and Utilization of Research in Nursing(CURN)project publishes report 1983 Annual Review of Nursing Research begins publication 1985 ANA Cabinet on Nursing Research establishes research priorities 1986 National Center for Nursing Research (NCNR) established within the U.S. National Institutes of Health 1988 The journal Applied Nursing Research begins publication 1989 U.S. Agency for HealthCare Policy and Research(AHCPR)is established (renamed Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality or AHRQ in 1999) 1993 NCNR becomes a full institute, the National Institute of Nursing Research (NINR) The Cochrane Collaboration is established 1994 The journal Qualitative Health Research begins publication 1995 The Joanna Briggs Institute, an international EBP collaborative, is established in Australia 1997 Canadian Health Services Research Foundation is established with federal funding 2000 NINR’s annual funding exceeds $100 million The Canadian Institute of Health Research is launched 2004 The journal Worldviews on Evidence-Based Nursing begins publication 2005 Sigma Theta Tau International publishes research priorities Additional info: https://www.questionpro.com/blog/what-is-research/ QUIZ 1 LESSON #2: CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH 1. Purpose of Doing Research I. Exploratory Research II. Descriptive Research III. Explanatory (Causal) Research 2. The Uses of Research a. Basic Research b. Applied Research i. Action research ii. R & D iii. Impact Assessment Research iv. Evaluation Research 3. The Time Dimension in Research a. Cross-Sectional Research b. Longitudinal Research i. A cohort analysis- ii. Time Series iii. Panel Study 4. Research (data collection)Techniques Used I. Quantitative II. Qualitative Classification Of Research - Before a researcher begins to conduct a study, he or she must decide on a specific type of research - For classification of research, we shall look from four dimensions 1. The purpose of doing research; 2. The intended uses of research; 3. How it treats time i.e. the time dimension in research; and 4. The research (data collection) techniques used in it. 1. Purpose of Doing Research - If we ask someone why he or she is conducting a study, we might get a range of responses : My boss told me to do´; It was a class assignment´; I was curious.´ Simply there are almost as many reasons to do research as there are researches. - Yet the purposes of research may be organized into three groups based on what the researcher is trying to accomplish 1. Explore a new topic,  2. Describe a social phenomenon, 3. Explain why something occurs. ❖ Exploratory Research - You may be exploring a new topic or issue in order to learn about it, you began at the beginning to clarify and define the nature of a problem. Management may have discovered general problem but research is needed to gain better understanding of problems. - Exploratory research may be the first stage in a sequence of studies. The results of exploratory research are not usually useful for decision-making by themselves, but they can provide significant insight into a given situation. Although the results of qualitative research can give some indication as to the "why", "how" and "when" something occurs, it cannot tell us "how of ten" or "how many." Goals of Exploratory 1. Become familiar with the basic facts, setting, and concerns; 2. Develop well-grounded picture of the situation; 3. Develop tentative theories, generate new ideas, conjectures, or hypotheses; 4. Determine the feasibility of conducting the study; 5. Formulate questions and refine issues for more systematic inquiry; 6. Develop techniques and a sense of direction for future research. Categories of Exploratory Research 1. Experience Surveys 2. Secondary Data Analysis 3. Case Studies 4. Pilot Studies 1. Experience Surveys - An exploratory research technique in which individuals who are knowledgeable about a particular research problem are surveyed 2. Secondary Data Analysis - Data that have been previously collected for same purpose other than problem at hand(Books, periodicals, government source, internet, media) 3. Case Study Method - Intensely investigates one or a few situations similar to the problem. Investigate in depth. 4. Pilot Study - The use of small-scale diverse research techniques that involves sampling but doesn't apply rigorous standards. It includes:  a. Focus Group Interview - A focus group is a gathering of 6 to 10 people who are carefully selected and invited to discuss relevant problem of interest in the presence of a moderator. b. Projective Techniques - An indirect means of questioning that enables a respondent to project beliefs and feeling of 3rd party. these are unstructured prompts or stimulus that encourage the respondent to project their underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings onto an unclear situation. They are all indirect techniques that attempt to disguise the purpose of the research. ❖ Descriptive /Statistical Research - Describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon. - Descriptive research seeks to determine the answers to who, what, when, where, and how questions. Although the data description is factual, accurate and systematic, the research cannot describe what caused a situation. - Labor Force Surveys, Population Census, and Educational Census are examples of such research. Goals of Descriptive Research 1. Describe the situation in terms of its characteristics i.e. provide an accurate profile of a group; 2. Give a verbal or numerical picture (%) of the situation; 3. Present background information; 4. Create a set of categories or classify the information; 5. Clarify sequence, set of stages; and 6. Focus on who, what, when,where, and how but not why. ❖ Explanatory Research - When we encounter an issue that is already known and have a description of it, we might begin to wonder why things are the way they are. The desire to know ³why,´ to explain, is the purpose of explanatory research. - Subdivided in Causal research Conducted to identify cause and effect relationships - Laboratory Experiment - Field Experiment Goals of Explanatory Research 1. Explain things, not just reporting. Why? Elaborate and enrich a theory’s explanation. 2. Determine which of several explanations is best. 3. Determine the accuracy of the theory; test a theory’s predictions or principle. 4. Advance knowledge about the underlying process.  5. Build and elaborate a theory; elaborate and enrich a theory’s predictions or principle. 6. Extend a theory or principle to new areas, new issues,new topics: 7. Provide evidence to support or refute an explanation or prediction. 8. Test a theory’s predictions or principles 2. The Uses of Research - Some researchers focus on using research to advance general knowledge, whereas others use it to solve specific problems. a. Basic Research b. Applied Research ❖ Types of Applied Research 1. Action Research - It allows practitioners to address those concerns that are closest to them. In this, researchers want to improve the way they address issues and solve problems. In larger organizations it is guided by professional researchers. - action research = action and research - act -> review -> act -> review 2. R & D - Research and development of new products or procedures or innovations. 3. Impact Assessment Research - Its purpose is to estimate the likely consequences of a planned change. Such an assessment is used for planning and making choices among alternative policies. - Eg. Impact of Basha Dam on the environment, impact of CNG on atmosphere of Quetta. 4. Evaluation Research - It addresses the question, Did it work?´ The process of establishing value judgment based on evidence about the achievement of the goals of a program, policy, or way of doing something. - Two types of evaluation research are formative and summative. - Formative evaluation is built-in monitoring or continuous feedback on a program used for program management. - Summative evaluation looks at final program outcomes. Both are usually necessary 3. The Time Dimension in Research - Some studies give us a snapshot of a single, fixed time point in detail & some studies provide a moving picture that lets us follow events, people, or sales of products over a period of time. a. Cross-Sectional Research - In cross-sectional research, researchers observe at one point in time. - The simplest and least costly. - cannot capture the change processes. - Cross-sectional research can be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory, but it is most consistent with a descriptive approach to research. b. Longitudinal Research - Examining features of people or other units at more than one time. It is usually more complex and costly than cross-sectional research - more powerful, especially when researchers seek answers to questions about change. There are three types of longitudinal research: time series, panel, and cohort. 1. Time Series Research - In this same type of information is collected on a group of people or other units across multiple time periods. Researcher can observe stability or change in the features of the units or can track conditions overtime. 2. The panel study - In panel study, the researcher observes exactly the same people, group, or organization across time periods. It is a difficult to carry out such study. 3. A cohort analysis - is similar to the panel study, but rather than observing the exact same people, researcher collects information from people who have same nature, same characteristics etc. LESSON #3: RESEARCH PROCESS Research Process - is the examination and analysis of systematically gathered facts about a particular problem. - the main goal is to discover or validation of knowledge. General Phases of the Research Process 1. Phase I – Selecting and Defining the Problem - this phase involves selecting and defining an area of research that provides an opportunity to advance nursing knowledge. - Through review of literature, the researcher determines the rationale for conducting the study, a justification of the need to investigate the problem and a theoretical framework according to which the research results will be interpreted. - It clearly state the research problem - Review of related literature - Identify pertinent variables ( any factor property that a researcher measures, controls and manipulates. - Formulate research questions and hypothesis (tentative prediction about the relationship of 2 or more variables pertaining population under study)(hypothesis- educational guess) - Develop a conceptual framework 2. Phase II – Selecting a research design - In this phase, the researcher designs the study and plans the methods of subject selection, testing and measurement to ensure that all procedures are clearly defined. - Qualitative or quantitative design - Add a brief explanation of the concept of research design - You can also discuss here your population (respondents) and local(location, also add explanation why you will conduct research in that location) 3. Phase III – Collecting data - This is the phase where the researcher implements the plans designed in Phase I and 2. - Data collection is usually the most time-consuming part of the research process. Present the data and interpret the findings. - Develop an implications the “so what” 4. Phase IV – Analyzing Data - This involves analyzing, interpreting and making valid conclusions about the data. - Statistical procedures are applied to summarize quantitative data in a meaningful way.  - During this phase, the research hypothesis will either be supported or not supported. Analysis of results leads to new questions that stimulate further study. 5. Phase V – Utilizing Research Findings - In this final phase, the researcher gets the opportunity to share the findings with other colleagues. Research findings which are not disseminated to other colleagues are of little value of anyone. - Reporting the outcome of a research may be in the form of journal articles, abstracts, oral presentation and poster presentations. The research process culminates in interpreting the findings and communicating with others any new knowledge gained from the research. Differences Between Problem Solving, Nursing Research And Nursing Process Problem Solving Nursing Research Nursing Process Process 1. Data Collection 1. Problem Identification 1. Assessment phase - Conceptualize topic - Collect data from - curiosity about topic various sources - brainstorm with peers using - develop conceptual appropriate framework technique 2. Problem definition 2. Methodological development 2. Diagnosis phase - identify variables - validate/organize data - Formulate hypothesis - analyze and interpret - develop sampling size actual and potential - develop instruments needed health problems and validate - formulate nursing - balance validity with diagnosis reliability 3. Plan 3. Data management 3. Planning phase - Setting goals - Collect and organize data - Prioritize health - Identifying - analyze data problems solutions - interpret results of the study - Identify components of care/resources needed - set goals, formulate plan of care - select appropriate nursing actions - set evaluation parameters  update/modify as needed 4. Implementation, 4. Disseminate Findings 4. Implementation Phase evaluation and - Publish findings - implement plan of care modification - review findings - collaborate with other - critique findings members of the health team - modify plan as needed 5. Evaluation Phase - compare outcomes of care - collaborate with other members of the health team - terminate/modify/contin ue nursing intervention as needed LESSON #4: THE CONCEPTUAL PHASE Selection And Formulation Of A Research Problem ❖ How to locate a researchable problem? - Source for ideas - The problems encountered in your daily life or profession could be sources for questions or hypotheses. - a.experience + observation + needs + interests = research problem - Read professional literature of your field systematically. a. Suggestions from investigators b. Magazines - Perusal of recent convention programs of your professional organization. ❖ Sources Of Research Problem - 87 % came from clinical practice - 57% from literature - 46% from interaction of colleagues - 28% interaction from students ❖ Criteria For Selecting A Research Problem a. Sustained motivation b. Adequate training and personal predilection c. Feasibility FImportance to your profession a. Sustained motivation - You should be highly motivated to embark upon a research study. - Are you really interested in the topic which you have chosen? - Are you really excited about what you wish to study? - Will this topic have some practical value in helping you in your future career? b. Personal Training and Adequate Predilection - Is it right in light of your training and personal preferences? - Do you have enough training to undertake a certain study? Research design Manage most of your research study by yourself. - Which type of research appeals to you? Historical, descriptive, experimental research… Observation, interview, questionnaire, test… - Are you impatient to get immediate results or do you have patience to wait? - How high is your frustration tolerance  c. Feasibility - Is it feasible for you? Do you have sufficient time to carry it out? Meet the deadlines at your school or job. Do you have access to subjects? Available equipment and research tools Institutional sponsorship and cooperation Gathering data The need to protect privacy of individual A problem may be too complex Can you offer examples of intriguing and important problems which seem too difficult to be solved via research at the present time? - Not all the problems are researchable! d. Importance to your profession - Is it important to your profession? Is the proposed project of some value to your profession? Original study Make contribution by replicating a study Does it add to our store of information? Does it provide fresh insights for some of your colleagues? The results may be helpful to guidance counselors. - Make a contribution to your field! Delimiting The Research Problem - To narrow a general idea down to one that is manageable by you. - Delimiting the research problem - The way to accomplish this task: a. Read extensively in the literature related to your field of interest. b. Seek assistance from your instructor. c. Notice the difference between delimitation and limitation. - Delimitation: a premeditated limitation that the researcher narrows down. - Limitation: a weakness in the study which becomes apparent during or after its completion. - Categories of delimitations: a. The number of observations, subjects or cases b. Time and geographic location c. The selection of sources (especially in historical-documentary research) - It is helpful to narrow down the topic by telling what the study is not. Characteristics Of A Good Problem 1. feasible 2. research question is important 3. the concept to be studied must relate to observable events  4. the findings of a good researchable problem may be generalized in other areas. 5. the purpose of the study is clearly defined 6. researcher must be interested and qualified to do the study A good problem has sufficient research data - it’s best to avoid a research problem that doesn’t have sufficient data (or written information) for investigation Research And Value Judgments a. The selection of a problem b. The selection of methods c. The interpretation of data d. The reporting of findings e. Concern for the application of findings Ethical Considerations - The ethical considerations enter into: a. The selection of a problem - By focusing on one area rather than another, the researcher makes a value judgment. b. The selection of methods - the selection of proper methods for investigation that is regulated by professional codes c. The interpretation of data - Researchers may be temped to interpret their data selectively. Research and value judgments d. The reporting of findings - Researchers may choose whether or not to report their findings to fellow professionals and to laymen. e. Concern for the application of findings - Researchers may or may not feel responsible for the ultimate application of their findings Evaluating Research Problem - Significance of the Problem - Researchability of the Problem - Researcher’s experience - Researchers Interest What is wrong with the current situation? Background: - What is the nature of the problem, the context of the situation that readers need to understand? - Problem: How big a problem is? How many people are affected? - Problem: What is the cost of not fixing the problem?  - Gaps: What information about the problem is lacking? - What is the basis for believing that the proposed study would contribute to the solution of the problem? LESSON #5: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE “What should I be reading, and what do I do with it all?” - A survey of existing knowledge on the research topic is gathered from previously published materials. This part serves to define, classify and facilitate objective comprehension of the variables being studied. Functions of Related Literature a. provides research ideas b. orients the researcher to what is already known c. provides conceptual context d. provides information about research approaches Kinds Of Data - Research = studies/researches - Non-research = consist of experiences, opinions and theories of experts along the the problem area Conducting a Review of Literature Steps: a. Find relevant materials - sources of info can be found everywhere - It is the researcher’s priority to enrich his work by reading literature containing important data so he/can fully comprehend the variables under study. - Source of materials - Library - (journals, textbook, reference books, theses, dissertations, and internet) b. Actual Reading - What variables are mentioned? - What are the characteristics or descriptions of the variables? - this questions will help the researcher understand the said variables so the indicators will be easily established. - Further questions shall be asked: - What relationship exists between the variables based on the information given? - How can the information provided in this material be of use to my research?  - This will lead the researcher to decide if the book/article is worth including in the final literature review or not c. Note taking - Good researcher- being systematic - Must establish a system of note-taking – save time and effort. - Prepare index cards on which he/she can take down notes. - Note taking is useful especially when the researcher is already synthesizing and compiling ideas presented in the different references. - Note taking also facilitates consolidation of the literature gathered Four types of Reading ( Wilson) 1. Elementary reading - this is the kind of reading which everyone does and is demonstrated by an individual who passes from illiteracy to literacy. - Consists merely of the recognition of letters and basic sounds and literal comprehension of sentences. - able to comprehend the ideas presented. 2. systematic skimming - research demands a lot of reading ; the researcher must establish a system through which he can maximize his time searching for literature. Choose wisely 3. Analytic reading - a good investigator asks questions to thoroughly understand the article, such as: - “ What is the book or article all about?” - “What is being said in detail and how” 4. Comparative reading - the highest level of reading requires one to place what he/she is currently reading in relation to other materials he/she has previously read. The reader can state the similarities and differences between 2 or more articles in terms of their variables and propositions. - Look for similar studies for the firm foundation of his/her investigation What literature should you review? 1. Journal articles - these are good, especially for up-to-date information. - They are frequently used in literature reviews because they offer a relatively concise, up-to-date format for research. - Depending on the publication, these materials may be refereed or non-refereed materials. - What are refereed journals? - Refereed materials are publications reviewed by "expert readers" or referees before publication. - Refereed materials are also referred to as Peer Reviewed.  - Refereed materials assure readers that the information conveyed is reliable and timely. - A refereed journal contains articles that have been through a peer review process. This means that before being accepted for publication, the articles have been reviewed for their quality by recognized academics or experts in the field. - They can also be called "peer reviewed" or "scholarly" journals articles. - Peer review or refereed journal is an academic term for quality control. - Each article published in a peer-reviewed journal was closely examined by a panel of reviewers who are experts on the article's topic. - The reviewers look for proper use of research methods, significance of the paper’s contribution to the existing literature, and integration of previous authors’ work on the topic in any discussion (including citations). - Papers published in these journals are expert-approved…and the most authoritative sources of information for college-level research papers. - The Refereed journal has very specific guidelines for papers to be published (often this information can be found on the journal’s website), and a rigorous peer-review process (each paper will list when it was submitted to the reviewers, and when it was accepted for publication…often several months apart!). - Peer reviewed articles are written by recognized experts, show attention to detail, often include footnotes or bibliographies, identifying the source of material. “Refereed” means that the article was evaluated and either accepted or rejected by a scholarly editorial board or panel of experts before publication. - What about non-refereed journals? - Non-refereed materials such as Trade Journals or Magazines use less rigorous standards of screening prior to publication. - Non-refereed materials may not by checked as intensely as refereed materials, but many can still be considered scholarly. 2. Books: - remember that books tend to be less up-to-date, as it takes longer for a book to be published than for a journal article. - They are still likely to be useful for including in your literature review as they offer a good starting point from which to find more detailed and up-to-date sources of information. 3. Conference proceedings: - these can be useful in providing the latest research, or research that has not been published. - They are also helpful in providing information about people in different research areas, and so can be helpful in tracking down other work by the same researchers 4. Government/corporate reports - many government departments and corporations commission or carry out research.  - Their published findings can provide a useful source of information, depending on your field of study. 5. Newspapers - since newspapers are generally intended for a general (not specialised) audience, the information they provide will be of very limited use for your literature review. - Newspapers are more helpful as providers of information about recent trends, discoveries or changes, e.g. announcing changes in government policy. - Newspapers do not give unbiased opinions. 6. Theses and dissertations: - these can be useful sources of information. However there are disadvantages: - they can be difficult to obtain since they are not published, but are generally only available from the library or interlibrary loan - the student who carried out the research may not be an experienced researcher and therefore you might have to treat their findings with more caution than published research. 7. Internet: - the fastest-growing source of information is on the Internet. - bear in mind that anyone can post information on the Internet so the quality may not be reliable - the information you find may be intended for a general audience and so not be suitable for inclusion in your literature review (information for a general audience is usually less detailed) Book - Author's last name, initials. (Year published). Book title. City: Publisher. - Exampple: Kovachev, K. (2020). The UFO enigma: A new review of the physical evidence. New York: Warner Books. a. Book With 2-5 Authors - Author's last name, initials. (Year published). Book title. City: Publisher. - Same as above except use “&” between second-last and last authors. - example :Peralta, M. & Sabalboro, E.(2020). The Elements of Style. New York: Macmillan. b. Book With 6 Or More Authors - Author's last name, initials. (Year published). Book title. City: Publisher. - Same as for “book” except only use first author’s name and initials followed by et al. - example : Gardner, H. et al. (2004). The Arts and Human Development. New York: Wiley. c. Electronic Book - Author's last name, initials. (Year published). Book title [Electronic version]. City: Publisher.  - Campbell, P. (2000). Alien encounters [Electronic version]. New York, New York: Millbrook. d. A Chapter In A Book - Author of chapter, Initials. (year). Title of chapter. In Initials. Name of Editor/s (Ed.), Title of book (pp. start and end page Numbers of chapter). Place of publication: Publisher. - Vygotsky, L. S. (1991). Genesis of the higher mental functions. In P. Light, S. Sheldon, & M. Woodhead (Eds.), Learning to think (pp. 32- 41). London: Routledge. Journal Article - Author's last name, initials. (Year published). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number (issue number), start and end page numbers. - Pimentel, D., Lach, L., & Zuniga, R. (2000). Environmental and economic costs of nonindigenous species in the United States. BioScience, 50(1), 53-65. a. Electronic Duplicate Of A Journal Article - Author's last name, initials. (Year published). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number (issue number), start and end page numbers. - Same as print version but add [Electronic version] after the article title. - example : Bechara, A., Damasio, H. & Damasio, A.R. (2000). Emotion, decision making and the orbitofrontal cortex [Electronic version]. Cerebral Cortex, 10(3), 295-307. Article From A Database - Author's last name, initials. (Year published). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number, page numbers. Retrieved date, from Database name. - Jaroff, L. (2000). A winning combination. Time Atlantic, 156, 66-69. Retrieved December 20, 2001, from Academic Search Premier database. Theses - Author's name. (Year). Title of dissertation. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, institution, location. - Bernardi, R.A. (1990). Accounting pronouncements, firm size, and firm industry: Their effect on Altman’s bankruptcy prediction model. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Nova University, Fort Lauderdale, FL. Websites - Author's last name, initials. (Year published). Title of page. Retrieved date, from URL - University of Houston System. (1999, February 5). Community Impact Report. Retrieved December 19, 2001, from http://www.uhsa.uh.edu/community/impact/education. html Check this link (di ko pa naoopen) https://libguides.csudh.edu/ld.php?content_id=52097964 https://libguides.csudh.edu/citation/apa-7 https://libraryguides.vu.edu.au/apa-referencing/7SampleReferenceList