MIDTERM-TOPICS_-NURSING-RESEARCH-1 PDF

NCM 111 Nursing Research Midterm Topics  THE CONCEPTUAL PHASE Learning Outcome At the end of the discussion, the students will be able to: 1. Define what a sample is and what a population is. 2. List the characteristics, uses, and limitations of each kind of probability and nonproba...

NCM 111 Nursing Research Midterm Topics  THE CONCEPTUAL PHASE Learning Outcome At the end of the discussion, the students will be able to: 1. Define what a sample is and what a population is. 2. List the characteristics, uses, and limitations of each kind of probability and nonprobability sampling. 3. Distinguish between random selection and random assignment. 4. Discuss the importance of a representative sample. Research Problem  is a broader issue or topic that requires investigation.  It represents an area of concern, gap in knowledge, or challenge that researchers aim to address.  sets the stage for further exploration and inquiry. Sources of Nursing Research Problem 1. Personal Experience 2. Literature sources 3. Existing theories 4. Previous research. Review of Related Literature review is a written summary of the state of evidence on a research problem. primary purpose of literature reviews is to summarize evidence on a topic—to sum up what is known and what is not known. Types of Information to Seek for a Research Review 1.Primary Sources - are descriptions of studies written by the researchers who conducted them. 2.Secondary Sources - source research documents are descriptions of studies prepared by someone else. Major Steps and Strategies in Doing a Literature Review  Locating Relevant Literature For A Research Review 1.Developing a Search Strategy - Having good search skills is important. 2.Searching Bibliographic Databases - are accessed by computer. Institutions ( library) has subscriptions to these services. Start with an electronic search. Identifying keywords to launch the search. For quantitative studies, the keywords are usually the independent or dependent variables (i.e., at a minimum, the “I” and “O” of the PICO components) and perhaps the population. For qualitative studies, the keywords are the central phenomenon and the population.  Locating Relevant Literature For A Research Review 3.Screening, Documentation, and Abstracting 4.Evaluating Studies for a Review 5.Analyzing and Synthesizing Evidence Content of the Written Literature Review 1.Description of the Publication 2.Summary of Main Points 3. Discussion of Gaps in Research 4. Evaluation of Contribution  Development and Refinement of Research Problem Steps: 1.Begin with interests in a broad topic area. (or consider the one assigned to you). Practical research problems  Issues with performance or efficiency  Processes that could be improved  Areas of concern among practitioners  Difficulties faced by specific groups of people  Development and Refinement of Research Problem Theoretical research problems A phenomenon or context that has not been closely studied A contradiction between two or more perspectives A situation or relationship that is not well understood A troubling question that has yet to be resolved  Development and Refinement of Research Problem 2.Look into literature for validation - what has been done, what is not yet done ( research gap) Context and background  Who does the problem affect?  Is it a newly-discovered problem, or a well- established one?  What research has already been done?  What, if any, solutions have been proposed?  What are the current debates about the problem?  What is missing from these debates?  Development and Refinement of Research Problem Specificity and relevance What particular place, time, and/or group of people will you focus on? What aspects will you not be able to tackle? What will the consequences be if the problem is not resolved?  Development and Refinement of Research Problem 3.Write a narrower topic related to your initial area of interest 4. List some potential questions that could logically be asked in relation to the narrow topic. 5.Pick the question that you are most interested in and align with your research goals. Problem Statement  is a concise, specific statement that defines the focus of a particular study.  It narrows down the research problem into a clear, well-defined question or issue.  guides the research process and helps researchers stay on track.  It is often several paragraphs long, and serves as the basis for your research proposal.  it can be condensed into just a few sentences in your introduction.  Six Components 1.Problem Identification -What is wrong with the current situation? 2.Background - What is the nature of the problem, or the context of the situation, that readers need to understand? 3.Scope of the problem- How big a problem is it, and how many people are affected? 4.Consequences of the problem-What is the cost of not fixing the problem? 5.Knowledge gaps: What information about the problem is lacking? 6.Proposed solution: How will the new study contribute to the solution of the problem?  Statement of Purpose  otherwise known as aim or objectives.  summary of an overall goal. Research aim- is the overall purpose of your research. It is generally written in the infinitive form: Example: The aim of this study is to determine… This project aims to explore… This research aims to investigate… Research Objectives - are the concrete steps you will take to achieve the aim: Example: Qualitative methods will be used to identify… This work will use surveys to collect… Using statistical analysis, the research will measure… Research Questions - are the specific queries researchers want to answer. - pinpoints exactly what you want to find out in your work. Characteristics of a Strong research Question  Sub-questions are used when main research question likely can’t be answered all at once. sub-questions are by no means mandatory. They should only be asked if the findings would answer the main question. the more complex the subject are, the more sub- questions are needed. However, it should be limited to 4-5 sub-questions maximum, otherwise there is a need to revisit the problem statement it may be indication that the main research question is not sufficiently specific.  Types of Research Questions (Quantitative) 1.Descriptive Research Questions: These questions aim to describe a particular phenomenon, group, or situation. Examples: What are the characteristics of the target population? What is the prevalence of a specific disease in a particular region? 2.Exploratory Research Questions: These questions explore new areas of research or generate hypotheses. Examples: What are the potential causes of a specific phenomenon? What outcomes might result from a particular intervention?  Types of Research Questions (Quantitative) 3.Explanatory Research Questions: These questions seek to understand relationships between variables or explain why a phenomenon occurs. Examples: What effect does a specific drug have on the symptoms of a particular disease? What factors contribute to employee turnover in a specific industry 4.Predictive Research Questions: These questions predict future outcomes based on existing data or trends. Examples: What will be the future demand for a particular product or service? What will be the future prevalence of a specific disease?  Types of Research Questions (Quantitative) 5.Evaluative Research Questions: These questions evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention or program. Examples: How does a specific educational program impact student learning outcomes? Is a particular policy or program achieving its intended goals?  Key Steps in Structuring Research Question in Quantitative Research 1.Define Your Research Objectives: Clearly articulate your research goals. 2.Determine Your Variables: In quantitative research, there are two main types: categorical (nominal, dichotomous, and ordinal) and continuous (interval and ratio) variables.  Key Steps in Structuring Research Question in Quantitative Research 3.Choose the Type of Quantitative Research Question: a) Start with descriptive question per variable. Unidimentional Variable A unidimensional variable has only one dimension or component. It can be represented by a single number line. Examples: Height of people. Weight of cars. IQ scores. Volume of liquid. Multidimensional Variable A multidimensional variable encompasses multiple dimensions or components within a single concept. Research Question “How do sleep quality, stress levels, and physical activity impact academic performance among college students?” b)Inferential Questions Comparative “Is there a significant difference in the average screen time between high-achieving students and those with lower academic performance?” Relationship-Based “ Is there a significant association between the number of hours teenagers spend on screens daily and their overall academic performance?” c) Causation questions “To what extent does increased daily screen time directly impact academic achievement in teenagers?”  Terms Relating to Research Problems with Examples Term Example Topic The Impact of Nurse-to-Patient Ratios on Patient Outcomes in Intensive Care Units Research Problem There is a growing concern that high nurse-to-patient ( ProblemStatement) ratios in intensive care units (ICUs) negativelyimpact patient outcomes, including increased mortality rates and longer hospital stays. Despite existingguidelines, many ICUs continue to operate with suboptimal staffinglevels. Statement of Purpose The purpose of this study isto examine the relationship between nurse-to-patient ratios and patient outcomes in ICUs. Specifically, the study aims to determine whether lower nurse-to-patient ratios are associated with improved patient outcomes, such as reduced mortality rates and shorter hospital stays. Research Questions What is the relationship between nurse-to-patient ratios and patient outcomes in intensive care units? To what extent does improving nurse-to-patient ratios lead to reduced mortality rates inICUs?” Hypothesis Null Hypothesis (H0): There is no significant relationship between nurse-to-patient ratios and patient outcomes in ICUs. Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Lower nurse-to-patient ratios are significantlyassociated with improved patient outcomes in ICUs  Steps in Organizing a Qualitative research Questions 1.Start Broad: Begin with an open-ended question that captures the essence of the phenomenon. Example: “What are the lived experiences of adolescents who come from broken families?”  Steps in Organizing a Qualitative research Questions 2.Explore Specific Aspects: Break down the phenomenon into specific aspects or themes. Example: “How do adolescents perceive family dynamics after their parents’ separation?” “What emotions do they associate with growing up in a broken family?”  Steps in organizing a Qualitative research questions 3.Probe Deeper: Ask follow-up questions to explore deeper into individual experiences Example: “How has this impacted the participants self-identity and relationships?” “ What are the insights that they can share based from their experience.?”  Difference between Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions  Qualitative research questions often contain words like lived experience, personal experience, understanding, meaning, and stories.  Qualitative research questions can change and evolve as the researcher conducts the study.  Theoretical Framework  A theoretical framework serves as the foundation of theory upon which your study is built.  It consists of a collection of existing theories, models, and frameworks related to a specific phenomenon.  Essentially, it provides a structured, comprehensive view of that phenomenon.  Researchers use the theoretical framework to define concepts, propose relationships, and guide their study.  Conceptual Framework A conceptual framework allows you to draw your own conclusions based on your understanding of existing literature. It visualizes the relationships between concepts, constructs, and variables. Unlike the theoretical framework, it’s more flexible and adaptable. Researchers use it to map out variables they’ll study and how they interact. Sample Conceptual Framework Research Hypotheses are intelligent guesses that assist the researcher in seeking the solution to a problem. as a statement of the predicted relationship between two or more variables. Both quantitative and qualitative studies have research questions, but only quantitative studies have hypotheses  Types of Hypothesis(es) 1.Simple Hypothesis: This predicts a correlation between two variables—an independent variable (the cause) and a dependent variable (the effect). Example: “On average, people over 50 like Coca-Cola more than people under 50.” “Males are better drivers than Females.”  Types of Hypothesis(es) 2.Complex Hypothesis: These hypotheses involve multiple variables, making them more specific but harder to prove. Example “Age and weight increase your chances of getting diabetes and heart disease.”  Types of Hypothesis(es) 3.Directional Hypothesis: Also known as a one-tailed hypothesis, it predicts the direction of the relationship between variables. Example: “Increased exposure to sunlight leads to higher levels of happiness.” Types of Hypothesis(es) 4.Non-directional Hypothesis: Also called a two-tailed hypothesis, it doesn’t specify the direction of the relationship. Example: “There is a difference in exam scores between students who attend more lectures and those who attend fewer.”  Types of Hypothesis(es) 5.Null Hypothesis (H0): This assumes no significant effect or relationship between variables. Researchers aim to reject the null hypothesis. Example: “There is no difference in blood pressure between patients who take medication and those who don’t.”  Types of Hypothesis(es) 6.Alternative Hypothesis (H1 or Ha): The opposite of the null hypothesis, it suggests a significant effect or relationship. Researchers seek evidence to support the alternative hypothesis. Example: “The new drug reduces pain more effectively than the existing drug.” The Design and Planning Phase Learning Outcomes At the end of the discussion, the students will be able to: 1. Define what a sample is and what a population is. 2. List the characteristics, uses, and limitations of each kind of probability and nonprobability sampling. 3. Distinguish between random selection and random assignment. 4. Discuss the importance of a representative sample. 1. Quantitative Research:  This type of research focuses on numerical data and aims to quantify relationships, patterns, or effects. It often involves surveys, experiments, and statistical analyses. Types of Quantitative Designs Experimental Research Design Manipulates one variable to observe its effect on another. Quasi-Experimental Research Design (Causal Comparative): Examines cause-and-effect relationships without full experimental control. Types of Quantitative Designs Correlational Research Design Measures associations between variables. No manipulation of variables. Predictive Quantitative Design Predicts outcomes based on existing data.  Qualitative Research Qualitative research explores subjective experiences, meanings, and context. It uses methods like interviews, focus groups, and content analysis to understand complex phenomena.  2. Qualitative Research Design Phenomenological Research is a qualitative research approach that provides the researcher with an opportunity to gain a deep understanding of the nature or meaning of everyday experiences ( lived experiences). Characteristics of Phenomenological Research  research question in phenomenological research focuses on the meaning of the lived experience.  Qualitative Research Design Ethnoghraphic Research is a qualitative approach that provides an opportunity for researchers to conduct studies that attend to the need for intimacy with members of a culture. Researchers play a signifi cant role in identifying, interpreting, and analyzing the culture under study. More than just observing, the researcher often becomes a participant in the culture. Characteristics of Ethnographic Research The research problem in ethnographic research focuses on describing and understanding a specific culture.  Qualitative Research Design Grounded Theory is a qualitative research method developed in the 1960s by two sociologists, Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss, based on the symbolic interactionist perspective of human behavior. Grounded theory is the discovery of theory from data that have been systematically obtained through research. it generates a theory to explain a substantive area.  3. Mixed Methods Research This approach combines both quantitative and qualitative methods to gain a comprehensive understanding. Researchers collect and analyze both numerical data and qualitative insights.  4.Systematic Review and Meta- analysis These methods involve synthesizing existing research studies.  A systematic review rigorously examines multiple studies on a specific topic, while meta-analysis statistically combines data from various studies.  Sampling Concepts Population - is an entire set of subjects, objects, events, or elements being studied. - Populations may consist of individuals or elements, such as medical records, patient falls, diagnoses. Target population - the population for a study. Sampling - is the process of selecting individuals for a study in such a way that individuals represent the larger group from which they were selected. SAMPLING…… What is your population of interest? To whom do you want to generalize your results? All doctors School children Filipinos Women aged 15-45 years Other Can you sample the entire population? 61  SAMPLING……. 3 factors that influence sample representative- ness Sampling procedure Sample size Participation (response) When might you sample the entire population? When your population is very small When you have extensive resources When you don’t expect a very high response 56 SAMPLING BREAKDOWN SAMPLING……. STUDY POPULATION SAMPLE TARGET POPULATION  Sampling Designs in Quantitative Studies 1. Probability sampling - occurs when every subject, object, or element in the population has an equal chance, or probability, of being chosen. Common methods Simple random sampling- every subject has an equal and independent chance of being chosen. Systematic Sampling - individuals or elements of the population are selected from a list at a regular intervals. Stratified Sampling - is the process of selecting a sample to identify subgroups in the population that are represented in the sample. Cluster Sampling-groups, not individuals, are randomly selected. Is used for convenience when the population is very large or spread over a wide geographic area. PROBABILITY SAMPLING Sampling Designs in Quantitative Studies 2. Nonprobability sampling- the sample is not selected randomly. - Allows for easy data collection. Common Methods 1. Convenience Sampling- collection of data from subjects or objects readily available. 2. Snowball Sampling- relies on previously identified members of a group; can be used to recruit participants via other participants. 3. Voluntary response sampling - is sample is mainly based on ease of access. 4. Quota Sampling- identifies the strata of the population based on specific characteristics. 5. Purposive Sampling-also known as judgmental or theoretical sampling, is commonly used in qualitative research; must have a have clear criteria and rationale for Nonprobability Sampling  Sample Size Note: - there are no hard and fast rules about sample size. - In qualitative studies, the purpose is to explore meanings and phenomena; an adequate sample size in these types of studies is one that is large enough to accomplish this goal. - In quantitative studies, sample size is linked to data collection and the type of analysis.  Sample Size Calculation: Slovin’s formula - is used to calculate an appropriate sample size from a population. Using Slovin’s formula: n=1+Ne2N​ where: (n) = required sample size (N) = total population size (e) = margin of error/ error of tolerance level  Sample Size Calculation: Use Slovin’s formula to find out what sample of a population of 1, 000 people you need to take for a survey on their vaccine preferences. Step 1: Figure out what you want your confidence level to be. For example, you might want a confidence level of 95 percent (giving you an alpha level of 0.05), or you might need better accuracy at the 98 percent confidence level (alpha level of 0.02). Step 2. Plug your data into the formula. In this example, we’ll use a 95 percent confidence level with a population size of 1,000. n = N / (1 + N e2) = 1,000 / (1 + 1000 * 0.05 2) = 285.714286 Step 3: Round your answer to a whole number 285.714286 = 286 Guide in Determining a Sample size in Qualitative Research Purpose of Research Clarify your research objectives. Are you exploring a specific phenomenon in-depth or seeking broader patterns? Methodological Choices Consider your research design. Theoretical Framework Align your sample size with the theoretical framework. Analytical Strategy Think about how you’ll analyze the data. Guide in Determining a Sample size in Qualitative Research Data Saturation  Aim for saturation, where themes and patterns emerge consistently across participants. Researcher’s Knowledge and Experience  Your expertise influences sample size decisions. Experienced researchers may need fewer participants due to their ability to extract meaningful insights. Institutional and Supervisor’s Requirements  Consider any guidelines or expectations set by your institution or supervisor.  Measurement Methods Four main levels: 1. Nominal: Categories with no inherent order (e.g., gender, ethnicity). 2. Ordinal: Ordered categories (e.g., education levels, pain scale). 3. Interval: Equal intervals between values, but no true zero point (e.g., temperature in Celsius). 4. Ratio: Equal intervals with a true zero point (e.g., weight, height, age).  Measurement Scales Instrument paper-and-pencil test that measures a concept or variable of interest. Many instruments used in nursing include questionnaires, surveys, and rating scales. Scales A scale is a set of numerical values assigned to responses, representing the degree to which subjects possess a particular attitude, value, or characteristic. The purpose of a scale is to distinguish among people who show different intensities of the entity to be measured.  Common Types of Scaling Techniques 1. Likert scales 2. Semantic differential scale 3. Visual analogue scale (VAS) 4. Thurstone Scale Examples of Likert Responses Example of semantic differential scale Example of Visual Analogue Scale Example of Thurstone Scale  Assessing Variable Reliability refers to the consistency with which an instrument or test measures whatever it is supposed to measure. Validity - is the accuracy with which an instrument or test measures what it is supposed to measure. 3 Major ways to provide evidence for validity: content, criterion, and construct validity.  Different types of Validity 1.Content validity  is the extent to which an instrument or test measures an intended content area.  refers to the extent to which the items or questions on the instrument are fairly representative of the construct it wants to measure. 2.Criterion-related validity  is a measure of how well an instrument measuring a particular concept compares with a criterion, providing more quantitative evidence on the accuracy of the instrument.  The existing measure is called the criterion measure and the target construct is the new measure of our dependent variable. 3.Construct validity  is the extent to which an instrument measures an intended hypothetical concept or construct. Construct validity is the most valuable, yet the most difficult, way to assess an instrument’s validity.  collection of all evidence that supports the interpretation and use of the score as a measure of the construct. Key Steps in Developing a Research Instrument Define the Research Objectives Clearly outline what you aim to achieve with your research. Specify the variables you need to measure. Review Existing Instruments Conduct a literature review to examine existing studies and instruments used in similar research.  Questionnaire A questionnaire is a specific type of research tool used to collect data from respondents. It consists of a set of questions designed to gather information on a particular topic. Questionnaires can be self-administered (filled out by respondents) or administered by an interviewer.  Types of Questionnaires 1. Self-made questionnaire is “customized questionnaire”. 2. Adapted questionnaire - when researchers adapt or modify an existing questionnaire to suit their study. 3. Adopted questionnaire - when they use an existing questionnaire without any modifications. Key Steps in Developing a Research Instrument Select the Type of Instrument:  Choose the appropriate type of research instrument (e.g., questionnaire, survey, interview, observation). Develop the Content: Create the questions or items for your instrument. Ensure they align with your research objectives. Key Steps in Developing a Research Instrument Validate the Instrument:  Pilot test your instrument with a small group to identify any issues.  Assess reliability and validity. Refine the Instrument:  Based on pilot feedback, make necessary adjustments to improve clarity and effectiveness. Finalize the Instrument:  Ensure all components are well-structured and ready for data collection. Implement and Collect Data:  Administer the instrument to your study participants and collect relevant data