Human Development & Learning Notes PDF

ED 3021 Human Development & Learning Human development During first 12 years of child’s life – significant ‘development’ occurs… In domains of: Physical Social/emotional [or psychosocial] Cognitive - Physical development = body, brain, s...

ED 3021 Human Development & Learning Human development During first 12 years of child’s life – significant ‘development’ occurs… In domains of: Physical Social/emotional [or psychosocial] Cognitive - Physical development = body, brain, senses, motor skills, health - Psychosocial = emotions, personality, social relationships - Cognitive = learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, creativity Complex process As they develop – children workout their place in the world: They are part of a family, a community, a social system; but also an individual “being” … Why study development? Improves understanding of internal/external factor that influence how a child grows Leads to better understanding of why some children have difficulties, differences, and delays This combined understanding leads to better teaching (and learning situations more effective) As teachers – understanding development allows us to effectively interact with children at their developmental level: Communicate in ways that are age appropriate Encourage appropriate and relevant play Help them express & understand their (and others’) emotions Reinforce appropriate behaviours for that level A Developmentalist: - Is any scholar who seeks to understand the human developmental process. Includes: - Psychologists, sociologists, educators, biologists, physicians… Defining development: Systematic continuities & changes between conception and death What drives development? - Maturation: hereditary influences on aging process - Learning: change in behaviour due to experience Typical pathways of development – yet no two people follow exactly the same path Typical patterns = normative development Individual variations in patterns = ideographic development Goals of developmentalists 1. Describe development: Normative development Ideographic development 2. Explain development: Why do individuals develop differently? 3. Optimize development Apply research findings to “real world” Phases Developmentalists often classify developmental phases – using specific age rages (ex: Infancy phase = first 2 years of life) Yet – these are not standardized phases Developmentalists do not always agree on age ranges to be included in phases or stages… We will explore several theories on development & learning ** there is no 1 ideal perspective…..need to consider many when seeking to understand human development The concept of “children” has changed over time Early Theories: Preformationism Approx. 6th-15th centure, predominant view of children was – they were “miniature adults”… Childhood not seen as a unique phase of life Believed to possess all their sensory capabilities, emotions, and mental aptitude at birth The prenatal view was that a fetus was “fully formed” at point of conception View of ‘children’ in Preformationism: First 7 years of life child is “cared for”, but once 7 expected to care for themselves Treated as adults (clothing, employment could beging at age 7) Could be married starting at age 7 Could be imprisoned or hanged; charged for crimes as if they were adults Had to learn trade skills Had to complete an apprenticeship in a trade Interacted & socialized with adults Do preformationist views still exist? Maybe IMPLICITLY…. - Adults just expect “mature/adult” thought and behavior patterns from children: Such as: Knowing to “sit still” in certain social contexts (you know better than to run around in church) Understanding budgets and spending (you know we can’t afford that) Assuming their thinking & motivation is similar to ours in situations During 16th-17th century: - Rise of middle class; white collar occupations began to emerge (lawyers, bankers, journalists) - Required READING, WRITING, and MATH skill - Thus: a new demand for academic instruction (versus trades-only training in children) - Reading/writing/math became goal for learning in children until age 12 - Children slowly became seen as “future adults” versus miniature adults - A new status evolved for the child 18th century Decline of belief that human embryo is “fully formed”, due to advances in scientific understanding/biological process With this new understanding – came great interest in the child Many theories were generated – reflected views of those trying to explain newly noticed ‘children and childhood’ Early Developmentalists & Theories 1. John Locke Believed all humans born with a BLANK SLATE Their ideas come from experiences Refuted idea of “innate ideas” Environments molded the mind!!! Said ‘Early’ years are especially influenced by environment…How? Associations – thoughts & feelings develop through association: 2 things occurring together become associated  Repetition – practice of something becomes habit that child feels uneasy about if they do not repeat it AND Imitation – child does what they see others doing Rewards/Punishments – engage in or refrain from doing things based on rewards or consequences received from others So, he believed to fill the ‘blank slate’ at birth: Associations Repetition Imitation Rewards & punishments Were ALL NECESSARY (they involve ‘others’ in the environment surrounding the child) Locke believed in the importance of character development & academic learning He wrote “Some thoughts concerning education” in 1693 He stated the main “goal” of education was SELF CONTROL He felt adults should instill self-discipline in children [via association, repetition, imitation, rewards & consequences] Locke stated: “give plenty of exercise, keep them outdoors to play in all seasons, do not coddle or indulge as habits will form – hard to break” Locke opposed use of physical punishment with children (due to undesirable associations made) Locke opposed sweets & money as rewards (this just encourages child to only find happiness in these types of things) He believed best rewards are: flattery & praise (verbal reinforcement) Best punishments are: Disapproval (cold glance; child feels shame) Locke believed a child learned more from example than abstract adult rules/expectations Need to be given opportunities to practice expected behaviours vs. just giving a command to do it AND To be effective instruction must be enjoyable Locke – ideas on education: We learn through game-type of situations Instruction needs to be arranged in steps – one mastered before moving onto the next AND: USE of rewards and consequences – very important His learning principles (association, repetition, imitation, rewards/punishments) …became cornerstones of what later became: “learning theory” Locke - A physician, diplomat, economist, and scientist - Elected at age 36 to the Royal Society of London for improving natural knowledge - Friends with Isaac Newton and England’s intellectual site Critical role of teaching & education - “if at birth the child’s mind is devoid of any ideas, then the educator has a major role in shaping the personality of his pupil whom he has to transform into a model of behaviour, training him step by step to face the demands of real life to the best of his abilities” - He said – the importance of education lies in its ability to shape a person’s character from childhood, up to adulthood; and to tame desire with reason Another early developmentalist…. 2. Jean-Jacques Rousseau - Rousseau agreed with Locke that children were different from adults He opposed preformationist views BUT - He did not agree with blank slate - …instead, he felt child had their own “modes” of thinking & feeling (based on natural urges & stages) - He felt nature must be given the chance to guide a child’s growth - Rousseau did not feel adults trusted their own judgement; they were dependant on the opinions & reactions of others - Rousseau had a complex personal life, which may explain his “resistance” to environmental influences Mother died giving birth to him Raised by father and aunt (father never let him forget he had caused his mother’s death) Not allowed to play with other children Young Rousseau read constantly, mostly books his mother had owned (romantic, stories of fantasy, love, etc) … his friends were the characters in these books…. Eventually he was claimed to be the Father of Developmental Psychology But… some debate this – they question his suitability because: He fathered several children & gave them to orphanage So – does he have credibility re-children’s development - His most notable contribution to development was Emile: Story of a fictious boy who is raised according to natures plan for healthy development 5 chapters (called “Book I, II, III, IV, V”) Emile - Rousseau wrote about the difficulty of being a good individual within an inherently corrupt society - Emile deals specifically with education and outlines a system which would allow for human goodness - He uses the fictional story of Emile and his Tutor to outline his ideas Discussing Emile – Book 2 - Children study lessons of nature - Learn rules of the physical universe - Will result in them having good judgment and intuition - Ideal classroom – outdoors… child makes use of arms, legs, hands, and senses - Learn through experience not words - Emile is to bow not to the commands of society but to natures necessities Rousseau’s Theory on Development: Childhood was unique according to nature’s design Nature is hidden tutor who prompts child to develop different stages of growth Rousseau felt there were general “stages of development” 1. Infancy (0-2 years) 2. Childhood (2-12) 3. Late childhood (12-15) 4. Adolescence (15-18) Rousseau felt children need time to develop; society was always “rushing” children to become adults…. **Childhood = Longest stage in his view On learning & education Rousseau felt a Child learns on their own – from nature’s inner promptings: A tutor (adult, teacher) provides guidance only A tutor never corrects or answers for the child Goal – help child learn to solve problems on their own Don’t teach but allow child to discover Rousseau’s theory offered a clearly contrasting perspective from Locke’s… He indicated Educators and parents should give children a chance to learn in ways that come naturally to them Rousseau laid the ground-work for many future areas of developmental psychology… Arnold Gesell (1880-1961) A pediatrician and psychologist - Influenced by ideas of Rousseau… - Gesell felt development was genetically determined – unfolded automatically over time, like a flower - His theory – Maturational theory Primary views of maturational theory: - Child develops biologically in a predetermined order from within, unfolding in fixed, predicable sequences, or stages - Every child goes through the same series of fixed sequences, but each child has a unique rate or pace Maturational theory - Genes/biology & passing of time – play larger role than environment does in human development - Heredity (body type), temperament, culture, health, and intelligence – key Gesell’s research - He carried out first large-scale detailed study of children’s movements, behviours - Authored several books on the topic [1920’s, 30’s, and 40’s] - His research revealed consistent patterns of development - Supported his view that human development depends on biological “maturation” - Environment provides only minor variations in age when a skill might emerge - Environment does not affect sequence or pattern - Gesell’s research produced norms: The order and the age range in which a variety of early behaviours such as sitting, crawling, and walking emerge Gesell developed sophisticated observational techniques, including one-way viewing screens & recording methods that did not disturb the child Developmental norms: - Fixed prenatal sequences (ex. Development of heart, then central nervous system, then arms and legs) - After birth – cephalocaudal sequence: lip & tongue control, eye control, neck, shoulder, arms, hands - Growth rates vary BUT growth sequences do not Sequences happen – naturally - Gesell was particularly opposed to efforts to teach children things ahead of schedule - Children will sit up, walk, and talk when they are ready, when their nervous systems have sufficiently matured Gesell: studied patterns - Ex: vision and hand-eye coordination pattern Aimless movement of eyes at birth Gradual ability to stop and stare after a few days 1 month – focus on an object near the face 4 months – coordination of visual focus and hand actions with large object (e.g. rattle) 6 months – coordination of visual focus and hand actions with a small object  10 months – ability to see and pick up a small object with pincer grip Gesell said Children display a range of behavior in cycles: - 18 months to 4 ½ years: children experience temper tantrums - Yet, becomes more easy-going over time… with biological maturation - …then in a future cycle emotional outburst appear again Maturational Theory + Learning Gesell felt there were optimal times when specific types of ‘learning’ most effective: when the child was “ready to learn” - THUS: teaching should take place within this optimal period that is directed by the child’s maturational schedule - A failure on the part of the teacher/adult to correctly interpret the “readiness” of the child could lead to wasted effort & unjustified responses to child [punishment/frustration/poor grade] Gesell was influential and stimulated much more related work/theories Educational applications of Gesell’s theory: - Development of individual learning plans - Recognition of readiness for new experiences - Planning for developmental progression - Dr Gesell was the first director of the Yale University Clinic now known as the Yale Child Study Centre (Connecticut USA) - He was also the nations first School psychologist - Now a “Gesell Institute” on campus Another theory: Ethology - A study of animal & human behavior within an evolutionary context - Purpose is to identify behavior patterns that have had and may continue to have, significant impact on survival of a species Arose from theories on the “evolution of man” Darwin: Theory of Evolution - Suggested origin of species from a theological view was NOT correct - Felt humans and other species descended from common ancestors (humans branched off from ape-like animal species) - Greater diversity in traits among members of a species increases the likelihood that adaptive traits available to overcome any risk to survival Darwin Adaptive traits are thus “selected” into the species across generations - Darwin proposed that a species survival is dependent on this process, which he called natural selection Development of each individual – a unique “experiment” in survival: - A unique combination of genetic traits confronting the ongoing process of natural selection Ethology Ethologists believe only way to understand a species is to study them in their natural settings - Reflexes – “wired-in” responses to specific forms of stimulation. Ex: humans infants will grasp your finger when you press it into their palm - Fixed action patterns – more complex behaviors; necessary for survival Ex: foraging for food, searching for mates; running away from… Instinctive behaviour – special class of unlearned behaviours; released by a specific external stimulus (ex: distress call from baby chick elicits rescuing behavior in mother) ….these have survival value Sometimes there is a “gap” in the knowledge of a species regarding the specific releasing stimuli …when this information is filled in during an early critical period it is known as imprinting Lorenz (zoologist) - Focused on critical periods when imprinting occurred Discovered that geese’s predisposition to imprint was so powerful that they would imprint on virtually any moving form that he exposed them to during that critical period (including Lorenz himself) Lorenz said ‘critical period’ for animal species… Ethologists did not think it was a critical period in Human species…but rather a: “sensitive period” for attachment to form…. This led to work on social attachments in human development Most of the work of the early ethologists involved study of animal species until: Bowlby & Ainsworth - Applied insights of ethology to their views of human development Bowlby Studied children in orphanages – interested in their emotional issues - Also he observed children going into hospital for treatments, operations… He developed a theory on HUMAN ATTACHMENT Bowlby’s theory - Observations of toddlers in hospitals (parents not allowed to stay); extreme distress and upset by child He felt humans attached to their parents in similar ways that animals did ….an instinctual need to stay close to the parent/caregiver on whom they have imprinted Bowlby saw attachment happening in phases Phase 1 (Birth to 8-12 weeks) Indiscriminate responsiveness to humans - Infants orient to persons in their environment, visually tracking, grasping & reaching; siling & babbling - These behaviours sustain the attentions of others & thus their proximity to the infant – the infant’s goal Phase 2 (3-6 months) Focusing on familiar people - Infant’s behaviors towards others more directed to the mother or father - Social responses begin to become more selective, social smile reserved for familiar people only - A principal attachment figure begins to emerge, usually the mother Phase 3 (6 months – 3 years) Active proximity seeking - Infants show greater discrimination in their interactions - Monitor the attachment figure’s movements, calling out; maintain proximity to them - Attachment figure serves as a base from which to explore and is followed when departing and greeted warmly upon return ***During phase 3, two predictable fears emerge: 1. Separation anxiety Child cries when attachment figure departs/leaves Then exhibits intense joy upon their reunion 2. Stranger anxiety 7 to 8 months of age, characterized by lengthy stares and crying at the sight of any unfamiliar people Infant clings tightly to attachment figure in presence of unfamiliar person; resists letting go Phase 4 (3 years +) Partnership behaviour - Child has developed greater understanding of parental intent; can envision primary caregiver’s behavior while separated - Child now more willing & able to let go; more flexible Bowlby’s theory – TERMS: - Proximity maintenance – desire to [always] be near primary caregiver - Safe haven – being able to return to primary caregiver whenever scared What is attachment? - “lasting psychological connectedness between human beings” - Considered interchangeable with concepts such as “affectional bond” and “emotional bond” Bowlby said: - The most ‘sensitive’ period for humans to form first vital attachment is 6-9 months of age - If no attachment formed by this age – may have missed window for developing bonds… IF separation is repeated or prolonged – child may give up and become affectionless Bowlby influenced others – many replicated his theory - One keen follower of Bowlby was Mary Ainsworth Mary Ainsworth - An American-Canadian Developmental Psychologist - Studied at University of Toronto; taught there for awhile - Spent time conducting research on mother-child interactions in Uganda - Expanded upon Bowlby’s original work (she worked as a research assistant for him early in her career)  Ainsworth’s Contributions: - She created a “strange situation” study which revealed effects on attachment on behavior In the study researchers observed children between ages of 12 and 18 months See how they responded to a situation in which they were briefly left alone stranger introduced and reunited with their mothers (primary attachment figure)…. - Extending upon Bowlby’s Attachment Theory The strange situation 8 steps 1. Mother and child are introduced to the room 2. Mother and child are left alone and child can investigate the toys 3. A stranger enters the room and talks with the mother. Stranger gradually approaches the infant with a toy 4. Mother leaves the child alone with the stranger and the stranger interacts with the child 5. Mother returns to greet and comfort the child 6. The child is left on its own 7. The stranger returns and tries to engage with the child 8. Mother returns greets and picks up the child. The stranger leaves During the “Strange Situation” Ainsworth watched “behaviours” of the children She then generated a theory based on these behaviors Behaviors represented how children were ‘attached’ their primary caregiver Various forms or ‘styles of attachment she proposed Styles of Attachment: based on her observations of the children’s responses, Ainsworth described three main styles of attachment: 1. Secure attachment. 2. Insecure – ambivalent attachment. 3. Insecure – avoidant attachment. Attachment Styles: Secure: Explore and play freely while caregiver is present, using her as a “secure base”. Secure Attachment: Securely attached children may exhibit distress when separated from caregivers BUT are happy when caregiver returns. …feel assured that the parent will return. When frightened, will seek comfort from other caregivers (get their needs met and feel settled). Ambivalent: Exhibit clingy and dependent behaviour but rejecting of the attachment figure when they engage in interaction. o (Cannot depend on that primary figure). Ambivalent Attachment: Become very distressed when parent leaves. Ambivalent attachment thought to be a result of sporadic parental availability during the key sensitive period of attachment. Cannot fully depend on their parent to be there when in need… and their behaviour displays this ambivalence with that person. Avoidant: Do not orient to attachment figure while investigating environment. Do not seek contact with attachment figure when distressed. Avoidant Attachment: Child avoids primary caregiver. When offered a choice, these children will show no preference between that parent and a stranger. This attachment style believed to be a result of neglectful and/or absent caregivers during the sensitive period for attachment. Secure Attachments: Theorized to result from provision of sensitive and responsive caregiving. Insecure Attachments: Theorized to result from a LACK of (totally or inconsistently) sensitive and responsive caregiving. Ainsworth’s Theory – Importance: Many follow-up studies have supported Ainsworth’s attachment styles and indicate that these have an impact on behaviours later in life. Attachment Styles – Represent: Expectations people develop about relationships with others, based on relationship they had with their primary caregiver when they were infants. Developmental Implications: Failure to form secure attachment can have negative impact: Inability to form close relationships with others. Lack of trust in others. Uncaring traits (of others) overall. Ainsworth Proposed that: Children adopted after the age of 6 months have a higher risk of insecure attachment. Every month after the 6th month, increases risk of not forming secure attachment to a primary caregiver. And, Any child, regardless of first 3-6 months parenting situation, if securely attached by 6 months to a primary caregiver: Have good self-esteem, strong romantic relationships, and are more “caring” overall. Not the orphanage or lack of biological parent present, but rather: Lack of consistent responsive care by a primary person in child’s early months of life that impacts their ability to attach in a “healthy” (secure) way. Present View: Other factors (genetic and temperament) – also play a formative role in attachment. Abuse and trauma in childhood may hinder the development of secure attachment and may be predictive of attachment insecurity later in life. In cases of severe neglect or mistreatment, a child may develop Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD). Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD): Child shows: consistent pattern of inhibited and emotionally withdrawn behaviour toward caregivers; only occasional or minimal signs of seeking or responding to comfort when distressed and has had Experience of extremely insufficient care: Recall- reactive attachment disorder (RAD) Child demonstrates disordered attachment to others Has experienced insufficient care in critical period of development… Insufficient Care - Social neglect or deprivation, with basic needs for comfort, stimulation, and affection unmet or; - Repeated change of primary caregiver that limits opportunities to form a stable attachment or; - Growing up in an environment that limits opportunities to form a stable attachment with a caregiver RAD The risk of developing RAD is higher than average in babies that: Have a mother with postpartum depression Live in orphanages and other institutions Live in multiple foster care situations Are separated from parents for extended period Have very neglectful caregivers Early Indicators of RAD Difficulty forming emotional bonds with primary people Avoidance of touch Limited positive emotions (shown/felt/experienced) Withdrawal from social interactions Effects on Emotional and Social development - Emotional instability - Social withdrawal; difficulty forming relationships and engaging in social interactions…leads to social isolation and a lack of trust in others - Behavioural issues; exhibit aggressive of defiant behaviours as a response to their emotional distress RAD behaviours include: Not smiling in typical happy situations Being irritable for no reason Seeming sad and fearful, especially around caregivers Not feeling better or not reacting at all when an adult tries to comfort them Calming down more easily when left alone Not showing interest in or looking at other people around them Not laughing or playing interactive games As a Teacher: - Child with RAD will get close to you but then pull away - Pulling away can be ignoring you totally; or sabotaging behaviors which can be very overwhelming & confusing to witness Ex: child spends hours building something and you praise them for it, then when you turn around the child smashes it to the floor, kicks it, then walks away Student with RAD does not seek help when feeling distressed so stress becomes overwhelming & they “boil over” – burst into aggressive behavior Or becomes more withdrawn Teacher-student cycle can create more problematic behaviors: - Child with RAD has negative expectations which leads to negative interpretations - Negative expectations from teacher which leads back to negative expectations for the child (cycle) RAD – Educational Interventions Child with RAD needs to see that adults are in control & safe to be with… Teacher can avoid increasing the students’ distress by creating an environment that is highly structured. When student knows what is expected – less confusion Teacher maintains a positive business-like relationship with the student & do not engage in the ‘negative cycle’ the more neutral the teacher can remain, the more the student will feel stable Professional Therapies - Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): helps child identify and change negative thought patterns and behaviors - Play Therapy: uses play to help child express emotions and build trust - Trauma-Focused Therapy: addresses the trauma underlying RAD, promoting healing and emotional regulation - Family Therapy: involves family members in therapy to improve dynamics and support the child’s emotional needs RAD – very complex… - Misdiagnosed - Misunderstood - Hard to ‘connect’ with child…frustrating for everyone Another developmental theory Developmentalist: Maria Montessori At age 13 Montessori attended an all-boy technical school in preparation to be an engineer BUT – she ended up pursuing Medicine instead She was the first woman in Italy to qualify as a Physician (1896) Montessori’s Focus She was interested in diseases of children Intrigued with trying to educate children with very low intelligence or as she referred to them: “unhappy little ones” or “uneducable ones” She was a member of University of Rome’s Psychiatric Clinic Montessori’s Personal Life She had a child out of wedlock with another physician To prevent shame and ruin her career – she delivered baby in secret Her son was raised by a hired nurse in a rural country home she owned ….she did not publically accept him as her biological child until close to her death She referred to him as her “nephew” or “adopted son” in conversations Montessori’s theory of development She supported the concept of “sensitive periods” in development: Genetically programmed blocks of time during which the child is especially eager and able to master certain tasks Child must be allowed to “enjoy” these experiences at the time nature has planned Her basic principle was “follow the child” Based on the belief that children learn best when they are free to explore and interact with their environment Considers the whole child – their cognitive, social, emotional, and physical development