CLAS 320 A Notes on Spectator Sports & Athletics in Rome & Greece PDF

Tab 1 Spectator sports: Rome | Dec 5, 2024 | CLAS 320 A Notes Juno said that Romans are only interested in bread and circuses, so food and races and performances They were not as into gladiator sports and animal shows as portrayed in modern media Gladiatorial c...

Tab 1 Spectator sports: Rome | Dec 5, 2024 | CLAS 320 A Notes Juno said that Romans are only interested in bread and circuses, so food and races and performances They were not as into gladiator sports and animal shows as portrayed in modern media Gladiatorial combat - Probably originated with the etruscans, and gladiatorial match would be held in funerals, broadening out to become a general spectatorial activity - It did not become popular until Julius Caesar - It was so popular that it became illegal for the senate to hold more than 2 shows per year - Augustus only sponsored gladiatorial shows 8 times in his 40 years of being emperor - People might be sentenced to gladiators if they commit crime, or mostly are enslaved people and there are some free people who volunteer to become gladiators because they think that it would bring them fame and money - They would have to go to gladiator school and take up a stage name, theses schools were privately owned in the republic but it was owned by the emperor in the empire - Lanista are coaches - You will train with weapons made out of wood before you are sent to a specific training to specialise in a certain activity - There are 14 types of gladiators, all are 1 on 1 - Secutor pl secutores - Pursuer - This secutor would wear a large crested helmet that covers his face, he would wear protection for his arms and legs and hold a large shield - They are carrying very heavy armor so they cannot move quickly - The retiarius pl retiarii is the only person who fights without any head protection, he only wears a loin cloth, and he would have a trident - Retiarius would want to cover the secutor with a net and use the trident to poke him - Thraex pl thraeces - He would wear light armor and have a curved sword - They would dash back and forth to find openings in the opponents armor - The murmillo’s pl murmillones armor is similar to that of the secutor but the difference is in the type of helmet - Vast majority of gladiators were male, but there exist some female gladiators - If you want to sponsor the show itself, you would have to rent a gladiator from the gladiatorial shows, so the price of renting ranges from 100-15k sesterces - A really popular one might be 100k sesterces - The night before the show, the gladiators would have a meal - The first day, they would have a parade with all the participants with the person who sponsored the show, there is music and a band playing, and the music would play for the rest of the day  - There is animal exhibitions in the morning, sometimes there will be beast hunts continuing until noon where there is an intermission - During the intermission, convicted criminals will be lined up and executed - In the afternoon, the gladiators would come into the arena and swear an oath, and they would fight until someone was killed - There are no rules so you can keep fighting - If someone wants to surrender, he could drop his shield and put up his finger, that is when the crowd decides whether the person should be killed or spared - It is not entirely sure, but if the crowd put thumbs down, the winner would slice his throat - The victor would win a crown and a prize money - If he wins a lot of matches, he might get his freedom, get a symbolic wooden sword called rudis that symbolises his freedom - Gladiators were of low social status and they are stigmatised because of the work they are doing with their bodies - However, they are looked upon as the most masculine and virile men around - Earliest games were held in the roman forum and this happened throughout the republic, as they became more popular, they set up wooden structures for temporary shows, but in the empire, they had permanent structures built for the show like the colosseum - The center is the arena, coming from the latin word sand - Gladiatorial shows would be published in advance and pasted on walls - The colosseum has 78 entrances, and you would have an assigned seat - There are 4 tiers of seats according to your status, lowest level is the emperor or the presiding magistrate in a special box seat, the front rows are for the senators and the vestal virgins - Next tier up is for equestrian status, next level is everyone else in the middle class - The very top is where the women and plebeians sat - There is a very clear status distinction - On a hot day, there are pulleys that could pull out a shelter - The ground below the arena has a lot of cages where they keep animals and where the gladiators would hang out - Ludus Magnus is the largest gladiatorial school in Rome, very close to the colosseum, and it included barracks where they gladiators would stay in, there are training rooms Other amphitheater activities Animal shows - Wild animals would be brought from Africa and they would fight, human vs animal or animal vs animal - The more exotic the animal is, the better - Bestiarius is armored men who are supposed to fight after the animal - The least fair fight is when a convicted victim is tied up to be eaten by the animal Sea battles - You will fill the amphitheater up with water and have ships in the water, there would be enslaved people in the boats to fight - There is a amphitheater built specifically for sea battles near the colosseum - The lives of the people who fight are not worth very much so dying is fine Reenact historical battles - You might dress up some gladiators as greeks and trojans and do a mock trojan war, the outcome is predetermined and staged, so it is played out by the gladiators - Even though they know that they might die, they will still fight to their best to be as realistic as possible Chariot races - Most popular spectator sports - Circuses are race tracks that are all over the roman world, most impressive one was the circus maximus - During the monarchy, the water was drained and they built it between the palatine and aventine hill - They could hold 350k spectators, more people could attend and people from all classes and statuses could attend - They tickets were either free or very cheap, compared to matches in the amphitheater - Circus maximus is almost 2000 feet long, 12 starting gates where the horses will leave - Spina is the long dividing wall between the tracks, and chariots will have to go around - Spina was decorated with monuments taken from Egypt - The 3 cones that mark the end of the spina is the meta pl metae - Usually charioteers are enslaved people and formerly enslaved people, they begin their career as charioteers very young, and they earn enough money to buy their freedom - Charioteers were organised into teams called factions, there used to be 2 factions but it eventually became 4 factions, red, blue, green and white - Charioteer schools are not as popular - There might be sponsors who put in money for the teams - Spectators will choose a team that they are fiercely loyal to, some fans would put curse tablets to curse the opponents to the extent that they passed a law to ban it - Biga is the 2 horse chariot - Quadriga is the 4 horse chariot - Pedibus ad quardigam (on horse to 4 horse chariot) is a phrase that scholars are not as sure about, either the charioteer will run towards the chariot and get on, the other theory is that he would get off the chariot halfway through and run - In a race where there are 12 chariots racing, each faction would have 3 teams racing, only one member has to get to the finishing line first, a chariot might sacrifice themselves for their teammate to win - Race began when the presiding magistrate drops a white napkin, race is 7 laps around the circus and winner wins - Winning charioteer wins palm leaves and prize money, 2nd and 3rd place won smaller prizes - The most popular charioteer might have poems written for them and earn lots of money - Gaius Appuleius Diocles won 1463 times and won a total of 36mil secterces - Charioteer races were very dangerous, there are crashes, if a charioteer falls, he might be dragged on the floor and get injuries  - Injuries were very common such that there are ancient remedies for charioteer injuries, such as taking excrement of a boar and putting them on your wounds, or take boar excrement and mix with wine or vinegar and drink it - Some people just like to watch bloody sports Athletics: Greece | Dec 4, 2024 | CLAS 320 A Notes - Physical fitness was very important, there is a beauty standard for fitness - In wealthy families, athletic training was a major part of boys education, part of primary school education was training by a paidotribes which is a PE teacher and they worked in a palaistra which is a wrestling school for boys - There were many palaistra in Athens but we had palaistras from other greek cities surviving, there would be a rectangular courtyard for wrestling and surrounded by colonnades - There was a concern that the paidotribes would have their way with the palaistra and seduce them, so there were measures to prevent this from happening - Sometimes the palaistra was a self standing entity, sometimes it is part of a larger gymnasium complex - Gymnasium is a flat land for men over the age of 18 to exercise gymnos (naked) and they would throw javelins, discus and running etc - Strigil is a small tool scraper to clean themselves after the exercise, they would put scented oil on their body and scrape it off - Aryballos is a jug that would hold olive oil or perfume and they would use this before or after exercise - Plato’s academy and aristotle’s Lycaeum were gymnasia where philosophical discussions take place - Aristotle's students were Peripatetics(people who walked around) because they walked around the gymnasium while they were chatting about philosophy Panhellenic games - Open to athletes in the greek world, greek citizen of a greek polis were eligible to compete - All male events except 1 open to girls - Olympic Games took place in Olympia in honor of Zeus every 4 years - Nemean Games took place in Nemea also in honor of Zeus every 2 years, year before and after Olympic games - Pythian Games took place in Delphi in honor of Apollo every 4 years - Isthmian Games took place in Corinth in honor of Poseidon every 2 years - First Olympic games first took place 776 BCE until 261 CE - Olympia has that huge sanctuary of Zeus so it was the perfect place - People attending tend to be people with money, because they need money for training Olympic games - If you are an athlete and you want to compete, your training would be paid by your city - Contestants participated naked - In 720 BCE, Orsippos was in a foot race and his loin claw fell off, one version says that he trips over his loin claw and lost, so they removed it, another version is that it fell off and he ran faster and won - Oaths were sworn on the first day to Zeus that they would not disobey the rules of the games - Qualifications of the athletes are checked, make sure they are who they say they are - Sacrifices are performed, since the games are not secular events - In day 2, there is a chariot race at the hippodrome where the people stand on 2 wheels and are pulled by 4 horses for 12 laps around the track, and each time they go around it they must do a 180 turn - Sometimes there were collisions in the race, if 2 chariots collide and one person fell, he would be dragged around - Horseback race - The winner of the chariot race is the person who owns the horses, and he gets the prize - The rest of the games takes place at the stadium, the word comes from stade(a unit of measurement 630 feet), and it is just a big area covered in sand - There would be raised banks of earth at the side where people would sit and watch - Pentathlon is 5 events - Discus - Long jump, athletes will carry weights in his hand and when he jumped, he would toss the weights backwards that helps him jump further - Javelin - Running - Wrestling - In day 3, the morning was set for religious practices, 100 oxen are sacrificed for Zeus - Afternoon is where competition for boys is held, footrace, wrestling and boxing - In day 4, the morning will have adult male foot races over different distances, and in the afternoon there were body contact sports such as wrestling, boxing, and pankration (all force strength) where there are basically no rules whatsoever - The only rule was to not poke the opponent in the eye and it might get fatal - Last race was running 2 laps around the stadium wearing the hoplite armor which is 70lb of metal - There was 1 footrace for girls that was done in honor of the goddess Hera, adult women on the other hand are not even allowed to enter the arena where the games are taken place Awards - For all panhellenic games, the prize was a wreath and crown - In olympic games, crown was made of olive - The crowns were more of a symbolic value, there was no real gift money - Kudos is the glory that you get as a result of some achievement or act - Klaus is when people talk about you and fame  - You might choose to set up a statue of yourself for your victory - Sometimes athletic victors will be granted free meals for their entire lives - They are also bringing back the glory to their own cities - Illis where Olympia is and Sparta are good at producing good athletes - Your athletic victory might be celebrated by having a poem of you written, Pindar is one poet - The songs and poets would praise the athletes, their hometowns, family and ancestors and they would connect this person to the mythological realm, and the poems will end with praising of the trainers, athletes in the past, and end off with prayers for future success - The purpose of the poets is to ease the person back into this hometown, reminding him that he is only human Warfare: Rome | Dec 3, 2024 | CLAS 320 A Notes Early republic - In the past, if Romans were facing war, all male citizens would be summoned to the Campus Martius to go out to fight but as population grew, this was not necessary anymore - At this point, a draft was organised to conscript soldiers to those who owned land - They were arranged in legions or sometimes manipular legions which are groups of 5000 men - This is because each unit of men in a legion is called a maniple - At the front there are skirmishers who throw javelins, and they were not necessarily part of the legion - Front line proper consists of hastati maniples because they carry a spear called the hasta, they were the poorest of the soldiers who are drafted - The poorest people fought in the front which is the most vulnerable and the richer soldiers found up back - Second line are the principes maniples who can afford better weapons - In the back, there are the triarii maniples who can afford the most expensive weapons Late republic - There were not enough men to feed the army so they redrafted such that all men have to serve in the army - Marius reforms that all soldiers are given the same treatment and same training as everyone else regardless of wealth, they had to carry his weaponry and his supplies and rations aka Marius’ Mules - Soldiers are guaranteed land at the end of their service, which is 16 years - Revised structure of the army  - Smallest unit of the army is called contubernium which is a group of 8 men who share the same tent, mule and supplies - Century is made up of 10 contubernia and this is around 80 men - Cohort made up of 6 centuries and is about 480 men, accompanying the cohort is 6 commanders - Legion is made up of 10 cohorts - All roman soldiers who are not officers or commanders are known as legionaries - All legions are led by a legatus, and they are followed by a few men who are not there to fight, so they are engineers - Each century had a commander called centurion, and there is 2 men with him, signifer and cornicen - Centurion does not fight, he commands the century - Signifers will hold up the standards, which is a tall pole that is unique to each century - Cornicen is the horn blower, and he signals salutes to officers and sound orders to the troupes - They began to recruit auxilia, non citizen auxiliary forces, who are not citizen men from other parts of the empire to supply their lightly armed forces - Legionary soldiers are paid better than auxiliary soldiers - Auxiliary troupes are also organised under cohorts and led by a roman officer, rarely it might be a chief from their region - At the end of their service, they are granted roman citizenship as a reward Empire - There were over 60 legions under Augustus, and he reduced the number from 60 to 28 - He increased the term of service from 16 years to 20 years - Legionary soldiers used to earn very little money, and they had to supply their own food and barely scraping by - Roman soldiers in Germany in 15 CE were riled up by some ring leaders to revolt Clothes - Helmets have no face covering but it covers the ears and the back of their heads to their necks - Shoes were laced up and there are spikes for traction - Shields are made of leather and canvas stretched over a wooden frame and it would be decorated with their century or cohort - Main weapon is javelin, but they would also carry a sword in a sheath in their sling bag - Centurion would be wearing something similar, but he wore a crest on top of his helmet, he got greaves and he would have a staff to discipline soldiers - Centurions had the right to do corporal punishment Siegecraft - One fighting formation is the turtle, legion soldiers would come together in a circle and they are fully protected by the shields - It is useful in besieging cities because they are protected against missiles - There are also siege towers, catapults, ballistas hurling stones or iron bolts - When soldiers are not fighting, they are tending to the wounded, quarrying of stone, use the stone to build walls and fortifications  - Roman soldiers are responsible for building roads and infrastructure Punishment - A new recruit will swear an oath that he will fight to the end to the general and the emperor - Generals have life or death control over soldiers - They could do public flogging or control food rations for minor offences - For major offences, they might be reduced in rank, reduce pay, withhold pay and even dismissed in a dishonorable way - If you deserted your role, you will be executed on the spot - Decimation is when every 10th men in the cohort is selected to be clubbed and beaten to death by the other soldiers for mutiny Reward - If you saved your fellow soldier, you will receive a civic crown made of oak leaves - You might get monetary bonus, a part in the loot and you might receive sculpted discs, medals and you can wear it on your breastplate during precessions - The auxiliary soldiers who do well will receive a diploma which is 2 plates binded by thread, to acknowledge his new citizenship and give him the rights for a legal marriage - Higher up officers like the legatus might receive a ceremonial silver spear or a silver standard of his legion - After a successful battle, they would set up a tropaeum which is a victory monument displaying the enemy shields and spears that they have collected - Generals would claim for himself the largest share of the spoils, including armor and human spoils - The biggest reward is triumph which is a large procession leading all the way through rome until the temple of jupiter in the capitoline hill - The procession began with hornblowers, priests and sacrificial animals and behind them is the spoils from the battle and the chained people - At the end of the precession will have the general or emperor seated on the chariot, they would be accompanied by a public slave to remind the person that he is still a human Mid empire - Hadrian was emperor, he made a reform in the military where he started to recruit legions in the provinces, so he got rid of the distinction between the auxiliary soldiers and the legionary soldiers - There used to be temporary camps, but Hadrian decided to remove them and build permanent forts where the soldiers would live - Emperors wanted to gain more men to fight so they increased their pay in the late empire, and they also recruit barbarians such as germans to serve as mercenaries who are paid for their service - Near the end of the Roman republic, constantine replaced legions with mobile armies, which are armed cavalry on horseback, station them on the frontiers of the empire to fight Warfare: Greece | Dec 2, 2024 | CLAS 320 A Notes Homeric warfare - Depicted from Homer’s poems in 750 BCE, where he wrote about warfare practices in the mycenaean period - Homer sometimes talks about the mass engagement of troupes but he tends to focus on individual encounters - Armor described by Homer consists of greaves, leg or shin guards, made out of bronze, a breastplate or corselet and a helmet with a crest of horsehair - Shields are made out of oxides that were stretched over a wooden frame, most shields are relatively small - Heroes would generally fight with a pair of throwing spear and fight with swords in really close quarters, Homer tends to describe their injuries in vivid detail - Warrior who lost in the combat is allowed to offer the victor an amount of money or ransom to spare his life - Winner in combat might mutilate the body of the loser, if they really hate each other - Achilles drags the corpse of hector behind a chariot after he wins - They will hold elaborate funerals for fallen soldiers and heroes and it is reflected by the amount of things he gets from loot - Kleos is fame and glory, people talking about you Hoplite warfare - Heavily armed foot soldier - Related to the word hoplon which is a round bronze shield - Hoplon is normally made with wood and leather and covered with bronze, it was supposed to cover half of your body, the other half is supposed to cover the person standing to your left - Soldiers had to stand very close to each other, and this also brings a feeling of solidarity when you are fighting together with others - People would use spears or short swords if they lost their spears - In homer’s poems, people fight for their own fame, but in hoplite warfare, it was about defending your city state as a collective - It is honorable if you get injured on behalf of your land - You can be a lightly armed or serve as a rower Before battle - You have to hire a seer and interpret the signs as a omen - Sacrifices is performed - The troupes will sing songs of apollo as they go into battle - Phalanx is a tightly packed formation, the front line will hold their spears forward - They want to break through the enemy ranks by pushing through until one surrenders - Tropaion is a big pole with bits and pieces from the enemy attached to it as a victory monument  - In 4th century, when men turned 18, they was required to perform 2 years of service in the army as an ephebe - In the first year, they would be trained in hoplite warfare and light combat and javelin, and he would be given a spear and a shield in order to proceed - The armory is given by the state - In the second year, you are stationed in Attica and you have to do patrol duty, at the end they would swear an oath to the athenian state - Ephebes will become fully fledged athenian citizens and called up for battle and drafted until they are 59 Sparta military - All boys are removed from their homes and put into a state-run military boarding school - Agoge is the word for this education system - Learn how to carry out orders and endurance, wrestling - Kreypteia is a secret police force sent out and they are tasked to kill helots if they are acting out of place and scare them - Young spartan male could marry but he was spending most of his time in the military - Technically military was such a big deal of spartan life that you could be drafted until you die Siegecraft - Not really known except for the trojan horse - They gave the trojans a horse as a gift and the trojans liked the gift, at night when they slept the soldiers came out of the horse and that’s how they won the battle - In 4th century BCE, people used catapults to send missiles from outside the city walls into them Trireme warfare - Athenians had just found a large amount of silver and Themistokles suggested that they invested in the money by building up their navy and ships - There is enough room for around 100 rowers, there are enough space for hoplite soldiers - They would run the ship into enemy ships in order to sink them, use the ram to destroy other ships - In the hellenistic period, larger ships became more common but in the classical period it was common to see 3 level rower triremes - There were 300 ships at Piraeus and they divided between the commercial and military ships - They had 300 ships at the start of the peloponnesian war and they lost, so they had to give all of their ships except 12 to the spartans - They rebuilt their ships later on to around 400 ships Mercenaries - People who can fight for any state that pays them, they do not belong to the state - Part of the military are mercenaries at any point in time - Many of soldiers who died in wars in Sicily were mercenaries instead of greek - From end of 5th century onwards, greek city states depended more on mercenaries on lightly armed troops such as archers  - People came from poorer regions or areas outside of greece in the northeast - In the 4th century, they found greek mercenaries involving themselves in the army of non greeks - Anabasis is an expedition by Cyrus who wanted to overthrow his brother and become the king of the persian empire, he recruits local persians and 10k greek mercenaries Rules of warfare in classical greece - Hoplites normally did not strip their enemy of their armor or mutilate their corpses - They considered it unholy to temper any churches or public private property - During the persian wars, they burned down all of the temples on the acropolis and they do this because they did not have to follow the rules of greek warfare - Usually the greeks would not kill everyone in that city but instead the would hold people captive - During peloponnesian war, athens would punish any cities who refuse to be the delian league by killing all the men and enslaving all the women and children - It was allowed for the defeated side to go to the battle field and collect the remains, they are cremated at the battle field - On rare occasions, soldiers would be inhumed on the battlefield - In the battle of Marathon, soldiers were buried on the battlefield and it was a special honor for soldiers who died fighting against the persians - Ekecheiria (restraining of hands) is a sacred troupe, every 4 years during the olympic games, they would not fight against one another and resume their hostility after the games Law: Rome | Nov 26, 2024 | CLAS 320 A Notes Law enforcement - The military soldiers did not stay within the city walls, so it was up to the romans to protect themselves - Some people had their slaves act as bodyguards - If there was a crime committed, it was up to the person to catch the perpetrator and bring them to a magistrate - The 12 tables tell us that if a thief breaks into your house at night and they are armed, you can kill them, but if they attack in the day or if they are unarmed, then you have to apprehend them - Military and paramilitary groups are allowed to be stationed in the city walls - Praetorian guards are guards for the emperor - Urban cohort is the police unit patrolling the city - Vigiles are night watchmen and firefighters  - In the empire, there was a class of people who would serve as advocates and act like what we know as lawyers - Women were not allowed to serve on the jury, or become an advocate, and women rarely spoke up for themselves in court, even sui iuris also tend to have men speak up for them in court Lawsuits - Civil suit is when a plaintiff summons a defendant to court and there will be a praetor in charge of overseeing the dispute - If the praetor thinks that the case was going to proceed, then he would assign a neutral judge - The judge would come from the senatorial class and eventually also the equestrian class - Trials were held in public in the roman forum, so people could watch for fun - Each side would alternate speeches, there is no limit in the number of speeches - The speech is followed by the account of witnesses, and this trial will last a whole day - During the republic, the judge will come up with a verdict - If the plaintiff loses, he will have to give up money - Criminal suit is something that goes against the laws - A private individual will have to bring the charge against someone - There were specific courts designed for specific kinds of cases, embezzlement and there would be a specific praetor for each court - Criminal suits have jury and it is 50 to 75 men who are chosen by lot among people from senatorial rank, but eventually expanded to equestrian rank - Criminal cases would take longer - Verdict is determined by the jury and each jury gets 3 tablets - Absolvo - I acquit - Condemno - I condemn - Non liquet - not clear - Majority vote will determine the outcome, if there conclusion is not clear, there will be more investigation - Normally the crime is clear Sentencing - Civil suits, if the defendant is found liable, the judge will tell the defendant to pay the plaintiff a sum of money - If the defendant cannot pay, his body will belong to the plaintiff until he is able to pay up - If you killed someone else’s slave or animal, you will have to pay them the highest amount of value that that person was worth for the whole year - If you broke something, you have to pay the highest value of the item in that month - If you stole something, you have pay twice the value of the item - If you hit another citizen, the damage will be evaluated and you have to pay for the damages - If the victim is a higher rank, the violence is brutal, violence is placed in a public place, body part is sensitive, they would get more money as damages - Criminal suits can range from sent to work in the mines, exile and a range of executions - Triumviri capitales are people who do capital punishment and executioners  - Jails are mainly used to keep people who are awaiting trials - Upper class face less severe punishments than lower class - Upper class might lose their status, losing citizen status and become a slave - For upper class people, executions are held in private and for the absolute worst crimes - For lower class people, they might get public beating and executions are in public - Infamia refers to lack of reputation and standing, which is basically stripped of your citizen rights, cannot provide testimony in court, hold office, and subjected to corporal punishment - Certain professions such as prostitution, gladiators are straight away given infamia - Crime of killing your own father is the worst crime you can do in Rome, person who is convicted is put in a big sack with a live rooster, snake, monkey and sewn up in a bag and thrown into the ocean How are laws created - 12 tables are the oldest set of laws - Ensures that all plebeians and patricians have equal rights - The original tablets do not survive but there are scripts surviving - One of the tablets tablet 4 is dedicated entirely to the rights of the pater familias - A child that is born and dreadfully deformed will be killed - If a father sells his son into slavery 3 times, the son will be freed from his father - If a child is born 10 months after his father has died, he is not allowed to inherit - If you want to propose a new law after 450 BCE, an individual magistrate will propose a law in the senate with a lot of debate, if the senators decide that they want to proceed, it will be handed over to the comitia centuriata and the assembly votes on it - Latin word for law is called lex and it is named after the original proposer - Lex canuleia, before 455 BCE, marriage between plebeians and patricians was illegal, but in this year Gaius Canuleius proposed that it is illegal to stop interclass marriage, so this law was passed - Lex Fannia, in 161 BCE, Gaius Fannius Strabo proposed a law to limit how much money someone could spend on a banquet, and this was only for banquets held in the Rome city before eventually pushed out for the whole italy - Lex Valeria, Lucius Valerius Flaccus proposed a law where the debtors would only pay a quarter of what they owned, the law does pass but shortly after this he was hunted down and murdered Law: Greece | Nov 25, 2024 | CLAS 320 A Notes - No official police, people tend to police each other - It was up to the people to arrest someone committing a crime and bring them to a magistrate  - Athenians have enslaved archers from Scynthia equipped with a bow and arrow Scythian archers - If someone was brought to court, there are no lawyers and you have to defend for yourself, but you could hire someone to help you write your speech logographer and then you can pass it off as your own - 2 types of lawsuits - Dike - a private lawsuit - Something that happens between 2 people - For things such as fights, hommicies - Only the injured party can bring the suit - Graphe - for the community as a whole - Proposing a lawsuit to the community, deserting the battlefield as a soldier - Any citizen in Athens could bring a lawsuit - If you propose a graphe but you do not have 25% of the voters voting for you, you will be fined - It is often brought by citizen men against citizen men - Citizen women could not bring a suit and could not be prosecuted, but a woman’s interest could be represented by her kuros - Polemarch is the person who oversees legal matters related to medics - Enslaved people were allowed to bring lawsuits in commercial matters - Anakrisis is the pre trial hearing, plantiff and prosecutor will have to swear an oath Legal proceedings - There are no judges, but there is a jury consisting of male citizens over the age of 30 - There are 2 ways to prevent juries from being bribed - Super large jury of 501 men ranging from 201 to 1501 - Last minute and very complicated system of allocating juries - Everyone has a ticket with a their names on it - Every time, the themokeskai will decide on how many trials will be there for that day - On that day, you can offer up your services as a jury and you go to the agora and put your ticket in your tribe’s box - Tickets will be pulled from the box at random, the tickets will be filed into the kleroterion if it is pulled out from the box - Kleroterion is a big box with 5 columns, there are 2 so a total of 10 columns representing the 10 tribes, so the tickets are put in the right columns - The magistrate will put a black or white ball into the tube, the color of the ball will decide if the row of people will serve as a jury for that day or not - This system of randomisation ensure that you have a random group of people serving as a jury for that day - If you are selected, you have to draw a lead token sumbolon from a box inscribed with a letter that determines which court you have to go to - Speeches are given by both sides of the case - Accuser or plaintiff will speak first and the defendant will speak later, each person only gets one speech in graphe and one speech can last up to 3 hours, in dike everyone gets 2 speeches but the second one is only a closing speech  - Klepsydra the water clock is used to allocate time for your speech - Witness testimonies were prepared outside of court and read aloud - A woman could be asked a question on a oath and her testimony could be introduced as evidence - A slave’s testimony could only be used as evidence if it comes from torture - There is no deliberation in the jury and a simple majority wins - Each jury is given 2 tokens, hollow one is to vote for finding guilty, solid one is to give up - Jury will use their hands to cover up the holes and they would put one token in the bronze bin to be counted and one in the discard bin - Socrates was 70 years old and a graphe was brought on him, corrupting the youth of Athens, introducing to the city new gods and failing to worship the city’s existing gods, and we know this from Plato’s apology, Plato is socrates’ student - Socrates was convicted by a majority of 60 votes Sentencing - In dike, damages is often determined in advance depending on the conviction - If there is not a penalty agreed on in advance, the final ⅓ of the day is used for determining the sentence - Defence could propose the penalty and the plaintiff could determine the penalty - Socrates proposes that he gets free meals for life in the prytaneion, and the jury voted for the death penalty - Another possible sentence was paying a fine, loss of citizen rights atimia (dishonor) total or partial - A total atimia means that you cannot hold office, cannot vote, enter sanctuaries, enter the agora and a partial atimia could be a few of these - If you owe money to the state and do not pay your debts, you would be sentenced to atimia, deserting the battle field or not taking care of your parents will give you atimia - Death sentences are normally conducted by drinking poison hemlock - For extreme cases such as tomb robbery, you are not given a proper burial by hauling your body off the cliff - Prisons exist but it is only used for people who are waiting for their sentence, guarded by the junior Proposing a new law - Any male citizens could propose a new law, and they would write it down and put it in the nomos in the agora, people who walk by could take a look and it might be voted on in the next assembly - Nomothetes is a legislator and lawmaker who would periodically review and change the laws, they were not legal experts but they were drawn at the start of the year who swore the jury oath and they would be called upon to do the service - Every year they would do a annual review of the laws to make sure that the laws did not contradict one another and were not redundant - Once laws were enacted, they would be inscribed and put on display Economics: Rome | Nov 21, 2024 | CLAS 320 A Notes Roman coinage - The amount of the coin is based on the value of the metal that it is made of - Smallest unit is as and it is made of bronze - Next unit is sestertius also made of bronze - Silver coin called denarius - Gold coin called aureus - 4 as = 1 sestertius - 4 sesterces = 1 denarius - 25 denarii = 1 aureus - During period of augustus, he made the requirement to be of the senatorial class to be 1 million sesterces - During the republic, there were many designs for coins but you would not find human beings, but near to the end of the republic, they would put the head of politicians for propaganda purposes - In the Empire, the coin was of Emperor Caesar Augustus and the back of it is his mother Livia dressed as peace Imports and exports - 400k tonnes of food had to be imported into Rome, including food and wine - Cheapest way to ship something was by sea - Romans look for food in close by places like sicily, then eventually north Africa and also egypt and eventually spain and gaul - Olive oil and wine would be imported into Rome in amphoras which are tanks and they give the olive oil a long shelf life - They would toss the amphoras in a hill after they are done using it so Monte Testaccio is made entirely of shattered amphoras - Middle-large sized boats have to be brought to Puteoli, shift the loads to smaller ships and ship it up the Rome in the republic - In the empire, they built the port city Ostia - In the first century BCE, the emperor Claudius built another port Portus, finished by Trajan - Portus is more protected than Ostia but Portus was used to supplement Ostia - Horrea is warehouse and there are lots of rooms to store grain, floors are raised to help ventilation and reduce rats - A politician Publius Clodius Pulcher developed a grain dull, a free grain distribution every month, however people had to know how to make the grain edible - Spices, fabrics and dyes were imported - The main export of rome is their culture, architecture and art Sectors of the economy - Largest is agriculture and farmers are known as agricola (someone who cultivates a field) - During the republic, farms were relatively small and farms are around 4 acres  - If people had large farms, they were seen as greedy - This changed when rich men started buying lots of land and building big villas in the countryside - It became illegal for people to own more than 300 acres of land but in practice they were often ignored - Grain are cultivated on 2 cycles so crops are harvested twice a year - A good year means that you are able to yield enough to feed your family for a year - Barley and millet were less desirable and were fed to animals or slaves - Olive oil is used in cooking, lamps, soaps, perfumes and olives are harvested every year - Olives are put through a presser to extract the olive oil - Grapes are widely cultivated and consumed in the form of wine - Commerce in ship - Rich person would build ships, get his clients and slaves to built the actual ship and sell the boat to his client - For retail, people working at a popina (tavern) is counted as low class, only poor people ate at popinas - You could work at a macellum which is an indoor marketplace that sells food - Trajan built his own market called Markets of Trajan and it is big, has food and shops and people as part of Trajan’s administration working here Skilled vs unskilled workers - Skilled workers tend to be slaves and freed slaves - Unskilled workers tend to be poor citizens - Rich Romans tend to look down on people who had to work, but freed slaves are really proud of their skills - Citizens who work for money mercenarii are unskilled workers and they have some kind of contract to tell them how many days they worked - They mainly worked in food services and unskilled construction work - Elite workers think that working for somebody else is degrading Economics: Greece | Nov 20, 2024 | CLAS 320 A Notes - Before oikonomia coinage, people would exchange goods - Coinage first appeared in Lydia in 600 BCE, according to myth, Midas was the king of Lydia and everything he touched turned to gold - Coins was made with electrum which was an alloy made with gold and silver - In the future coins were made with pure gold or pure silver - In Aegina, they started minting silver coins in 570 BCE - All coins (not just those in Aegina) had obverse sides (heads) and the reverse side (tails) - The obverse has a sea turtle and in the reverse side, there was indented inside  - Every greek city had begun to mint their own coins - Corinthian coins had athena on one side and apollo the other side - Sparta uses iron sticks “obols” and they use it as currency (12 inches in length), they start eventually minting coins but that is 3rd century BCE - Athens started minting coins because of this tyrant family Peisistratids - Obverse side is the head of athena and the other is an owl - ATHethaEpsilon represents the first 3 alphabets of Athens - 6 obols = 1 drachma - 100 drachmas = 1 mina - 60 mina = 1 talent (which is similar to 1 million) - If you serve as a jury for 1 day, you will earn 2-3 drachmas, a skilled workman will earn 1-2 drachmas - Trapezitai (bankers or money changers) (trapeza table guys) exchanged currency but they became more like bankers today, take deposits, make loans - Trapezitai were typically privileged slaves or freed slaves - In hellenistic period, coins started to bear rulers, Alexander the Great coins has Alexander portrayed as Heracles and the back has Zeus sitting on a throne and holding a eagle Imports and exports - Athens imports wheat from the black sea region because their soil is not good for farming - It is brought to Piraeus which is the port of athens - Any grain ships must go to Piraeus and it is punishable if you ship it to any other docks - 6 ships are brought to this dock everyday - Athens imports ship building supplies such as timber from Macedon and southern Italy and cloth and ruddle which is a red iron ore to paint the ships - Enslaved people were imported from the black sea region and asian minor - Athens had to import 6000 slaves a year to get enough slaves - Tin iron copper and luxury goods like ivory, rugs and papyrus had to be imported - Athens exports olives and olive oil, wine, marble, honey, manufactured goods like pottery and armory - Athens has rich silver deposits in Lavrion, people would bid to use a section of the mine and they can extract as much as they want, they often rented other slaves to do the work - 100 talents worth of silver was mined one year and Themistokles advised them to use the money to build 100 war ships, that was what helped Athens build such a strong navy - Lower class citizens did not have to pay taxes, during peloponnesian war, the state started a special wartime tax eisphora on the very wealthy to pay the soldiers - This tax eventually became the annual tax - The top 1% of the people also have to serve liturgy, which is public service - The richest man could be called upon to be a gymnasiarch and you have to pay all the costs to maintain a gymnasium - Choregos has to pay for setting up a chorus - Trierarch has to pay expenses to equip and maintain a trirene which is the ship - You could swap a liturgy or sell property  - Foreigners have to pay a special tax Sectors of the economy - Biggest and most respected is agriculture, you own land and it is farmed by someone - People in Attica own some amount of land, you would have enslaved people doing agriculture work for you - After each season’s harvest, they will leave the ground fallow for a year - Starting in the 5th century, they started rotating crops and using animal manure to fertilize the land - Olives and grapes and livestock was more lucrative than barley - Ploughs were done once a year and you will have oxen pulling wooden ploughs - They would drive oxen in a circle to separate the edible parts and the not edible parts - Most small farms were not self sufficient so they would have to go to a market at the agora to exchange produce - Commerce in greece entailed maritime trade and in the early days of greece, the act of trading was looked down upon because the work of traders were suspiciously similar to that of pirates - Because of the stigma, it was usually medics and privileged slaves who were doing commerce - Manufacturing business ergasterion were owned by citizens and the people employed were enslaved people, largest manufacturing business was a shield factory - Retail at the Agora is where people sell their items, they are mostly temporary set up but archaeologists found bits of evidence of a semi permanent shoe shop - People selling stuff were mostly slaves and medics - A law was passed in the 4th century BCE that banned people for insulting someone for their parents working in the market - Working in market is so close to being in a low status to the point it was similar to a slur Ideology towards labor - Working for anyone else is servile, slavelike and not fit for a citizen - We do hear stories of citizens who work as wet nurses - If a citizen has to do work, it is better to do work for the city through military service, rower for the navy, or city building projects eg to build the Erechtheion - If you were a slave, the money you earned would be given to your owner - Being a jury is also working for the city - Any one who had to work at all is generally looked down upon, the most elite athenian citizens did not have to work at all - They would hang out in the agora, hold symposia, talk about politics and help in the running of the city by serving on the boule etc keeping themselves busy Art and Architecture: Rome | Nov 20, 2024 | CLAS 320 A Notes  - Early roman architecture is inspired by Greece - Romans are especially keen on Greek sculpture so they copied - Etruscans were great influence as well who are italian neighbors of the Romans Temples - Earliest surviving temple is the Temple of Portunus and it dates back to the 2nd century BCE in the mid republic - Scholars thought that it was the temple of Fortuna Virilis but now they think that it is dedicated to Portunus who is a minor god - Like the estruscan temple, the roman temple has a really steady podium and a single front flight of stairs compared to the greek temple that is continuous all the way around - Cella is the inner chamber which is at the very back of the temple, compared to the greek temple which is right in the middle - Slender ionic style columns are borrowed from the Greeks - Roman columns however are embedded in the walls rather than being free standing - Roman portraiture began as early as 2nd century BCE, and it is very lifelike and realistic compared to the greeks - Romans developed portrait busts that is carved in marble - Realistic style continues from the republic into the empire, portraits of emperors might be idealized but they are distinctive and realistic to some extent - Most roman art we have comes from the empire because they were more wealthier than the republic Republic art and architecture - Rome had a lot of internal conflict until the time of augustus - Augustus of prima porta is a statue of him that was found at the first gate of the Roman city - Augustus wears a cloak of a commanding officer and gesturing outwards, he was probably holding a weapon - The armor breastplate depicts the parthians and the parthian king surrendering to the romans - Also contains other captured provinces, usually personified - Augustus liked to be thought of having divine connections and there is a cupid sculpture by his leg, this is a sign to be indirectly connected to venus and aeneas - Something characteristic of Roman art is that the statues are always depicting a specific individual wearing a specific outfit with a meaning and intention behind it - Ara pacis was a memorial monument to commemorate the peace that augustus created and it would have been originally placed in the campus martius, it is meant to commemorate civic harmony - There are representations of the founding of Rome and there is a processional frieze that is meant to commemorate a specific moment in time where there is Augustus and other members of his family, augustus is wearing a veil and dedicating this altar - Augustus always depicts himself as one of the citizens Private artwork - Gemma Augustea is a carved gem that commemorates the reign of augustus to show that he was worshiped as a god after his death, including some triumphal motifs  - The bottom shows some captured barbarians who have been conquered - Chariot with winged victory is likely a representation of tiberius who was augustus’s successor to commemorate the succession of tiberius - Our sources of domestic art comes from Pompeii, the eruption preserved all kinds of art and architecture of 79 CE - Floor mosaics were preserved, wall paintings and frescos are also preserved that helps us know the generations of wall art - Villa of the Mysteries has one room that has some frescos that represent the initiation of women into some kind of mystery cult related to Bacchus the god of wine After Augustus - Rome was destroyed by a huge fire during Nero’s period - Nero was succeeded by the Flavian Emperors beginning with Vespasian - The flavians are responsible for a lot of the colossal monumental architecture that we find in Rome - Colosseum accommodates 50,000 spectators and it is called this way because there was originally a big 120ft statue of Nero, but Vespasian destroyed Nero’s house and got rid of the statue to make way for the colosseum, so this name came from the colossal statue of Nero - Deep rounded barrel vaults are made with concrete and brick masonry - Under the arena floor, there are passageways where the animals are kept, there are trap doors to let the animals out - The exterior of the colosseum, each floor has its own type of architectural order - Lowest level has doric columns, middle is ionic columns and the highest level is corinthian columns - Corinthian columns has very elaborate capitals with leaves and scrolls - Arch of Titus was built around 81 CE and the arch leads right into the forum - Vespasian’s son Titus built this to represent his military victory at Jerusalem in the jewish wars between 66 and 70 CE - This is the first permanent monument specifically erected for a military victory - Underneath the arch, on the left, there is a procession of soldiers wearing laurel wreaths carrying menorah and silver trumpets that they have stolen from the temple of jerusalem - There is a representation of a bronze four horse chariot on top - Other side of the arch of titus has titus standing above his army in his chariot and winged victory is crowning him - Front of the arch, there are attached composite columns that is mixed of corinthian and ionic, there are big scrolls - After the flavians, it was not mandatory for your successor to be biologically related to you, so there was a period of 5 good emperors, one was Trajan - Trajan was born in spain and really active in military expeditions, so he erected the trajan's column built in 113 CE that is 100ft tall, acting as a symbol of imperial victory - The column has a long spiral frieze that represents trajan's achievements in the conquest of the dacians - It shows in detail of soldiers doing things in battle - Originally, there was a golden statue of trajan but it was replaced with saint peter  - Astia column in Oregon is built in 1926 that depicts 14 events in the early history of Oregon, modeled after the trajan's column - Pantheon was the built in 126 CE and it was erected by Hadrian, who was trajan’s nephew - Hadrian was not a big military guy, so he had this temple made to worship all gods - Front of the temple is lined with corinthian columns, the major space of the temple is the rotunda, and the circular hole in the ceiling is called the oculus, but this building was converted to a church - The pantheon would have been built with gleaming white marble and the ceiling made of bronze but it was quarried away in the later centuries - Reason why it was so well preserved is because it was converted into a christian church in the 7th century - Statue of Marcus Aurelius was one of the 5 good emperors and he had an equestrian statue of him set up made of bronze which had survived unlike a lot of other bronze statues - It survived because the christians thought that it was a statue of constantine rather than marcus, so they did not melt it down - Marcus Aurelius is always depicted with a beard and curly hair, and this look with the beard conjures up the idea of greek philosophers so he's trying to portray that - Baths of Diocletian was erected by Diocletian in 306 CE, and it was so big that it could accommodate 1000 people - It would have been gleaming white marble and mosaic pavements all the way through the bath complex - Basilica of Constantine built in 312 CE held a 30 foot statue of constantine in the roman forum, it is also the biggest building in roman forum Art and architecture: Greece | Nov 18, 2024 | CLAS 320 A Notes Greek temple - Enclosure of columns is called peristyle - Columns assembled from drums - The center room of the temple is the naos where the cult statue is kept - Walk through the pronaos to get to the naos - Whole roof slab is called entablature - Triangular shaped part of the roof is called the pediment - The sculptured decoration right below the pediment is the frieze Doric vs ionic order - Ionic order comes from Ionia which is modern day turkey - Temple of Artemis at Ephesos is an ionic temple - Doric order have no base and they taper sharoly at the top  - The capital is a flat slab in a cushion shape - The frieze has a grooved block that are called triglyph and they alternate with decorate art called metope - Ionic orders have a distinct base, they are taller, slender and almost cylindrical shafts - Capital is much more ornate, with scroll orbs - Frieze is continuous decoration, not broken up by any blocks Some greek temples - Temple of Hera at Olympia is built around 600 BCE (archaic temple) and it was built with wooden columns, wood would rot so they columns would be replaced with limestone substitutes - Temple of Zeus at Olympia is built 470 BCE and it is also doric, in the inner sanctuary there is a cult statue of Zeus but it was destroyed, Zeus wore an olympic wreath which is what champions wear, and he is carrying a statue of Victoria - On the east pediment, there is preparation of a chariot race between the mythical king Oinomaos and Pelops who wanted to marry the king’s daughter - On the west pediment, there is a battle between the Lapiths and centaurs, apollo is standing in the center - The metopes depict the labors of Herakles, one of them shows Herakles helping Atlas to hold up the world for him, and physically it looks like he is holding up the roof - All sculptures would have been painted in ancient Greece, but over the years the colors have chipped off or the archaeologists have removed the color to make them white - Delphi was an ancient sacred site in Greece that was home to the Oracle of Apollo - Some sculptural gifts to the gods in Delphi includes small kouros pl kouroi of Kleobis and Biton who are brothers deemed as “the happiest people to ever lived” - Archaic style of kouroi is inspired and taken from ancient egypt - Charioteer of Delphi is a statue given to the gods by the winning charioteer of the Pythian games - Not a lot of bronze survived because they were not very valuable and they were melted down - Most city states had treasuries leading up to the city - Siphnian Treasury in 525 BCE has columns with Karyatids and the frieze is continuous Greek paintings - Earliest style of greek painting is called black figure, with figures painted in black on a red background clay pot, female characters are painted with lighter skin but most people were painted black - In 530 BCE, red figures were painted on black background - Wall paintings also exist on Stoa Poikile but they did not survive - Polykleitos was a sculptor with the idea of perfect ratio between head and torso - Demetrios was a sculptor who is good at portraying realism, things moving in action Buildings on the acropolis - Parthenon is a temple dedicated to Athena the virgin  - Built 447-438 BCE - Columns are built in a doric style, and they make the top part of the column concave in so they appear straight - You would see a golden statue of athena in the statue, she holding a golden figure of victory, the shield on her left hand is from the battle between the greeks and the amazons - Birth of Athena was put on the east pediment and on the west pediment, there is a contest between Athena and Poseidon to see who would be the preceding god in Athena - Parthenon frieze is continuous right on the inside of the temple and it likely depicts the panathenaia or the foundation of athens - The front of the frieze has cavalry on horseback - Erechtheion is another temple with ionic style columns - There is a main rectangular building and also porches and one porsche with female statues as the columns - The frieze has mythical stories of Erechtheus who is a mythical king on Athens Politics: Rome | Nov 14, 2024 | CLAS 320 A Notes Rome types of government - Monarchy - 7 kings following Romulus - Republic - Struggle of the Orders between Plebeians vs Patricians - 2 consuls have the highest power - A little bit of democracy - There's a system of checks and balances to make sure that people do not have too much power - Empire - Start of Augustus - The emperor is not elected, chosen by the previous emperor but all the offices remains the same Roman magistrates - A politician or office holder - They obtain their positions though elections - Serve 1 year and they have to wait 10 years before they are eligible to be reelected - They can run for a different role and they don’t have to wait 10 years - Minimum age - More than 1 person is holding that position at any given time, no one person holds entire control up until the empire - Cursus honorum is the hierarchy of roles in office - A patricians or plebeian can go from quaestor, curule aedile, praetor and consul - Only plebeians can serve the tribune and plebeian aedile - Curule aedile, praetor and consul are curule magistrates and they are given a fancy chair called sella curulis - They are also the people allowed to wear the toga praetexta - Pro-praetor and pro-consuls are people who served the office before but have retired - Praetor, console, propraetor, proconsul, dictator are also known as imperium, they are able to control the law and give people the death penalty - In the empire, only the emperor has imperium - Quaestors - Minimum 30 years old - At the beginning of republic, there are only 2 quaestors but now there are 20 - Responsible for financial affairs - Each quaestor had a different duty - 1 in charge of tax, responsible for government finances, military payroll etc - Tribune - Minimum age is 36 - 10 tribunes in office, and they have to be plebeians - Their job is to protect the interests of plebeians - Plebeians have the right of the tribunician veto, they have right to declare any laws invalid if they find that they harm the plebeians - They rarely use it but it is still important because it helped the plebeians from overwriting any prejudice - Tribune bodies are sacrosanct so they are sacred, no one can touch the bodies of the tribunes - So much is done to protect plebeians because there is so many plebeians, everyone is plebeians except for the super rich, so to arrive at a compromise for - Aediles - Have to be 36 - 2 plebeian aedile and 2 curule aedile - Responsible for urban affairs, relating to the city of Rome itself - Maintaining urban infrastructure, aqueducts, roads - Monitor the markets of Rome to ensure fair trade - Staging of public festivals and entertainment, sponsoring shows - Praetors - At least 39 - Number of praetors increased over time and reached 8 - Oversee judicial affairs, law courts, supervise the judiciary system in general - Once your term is over, you don't necessarily become a propraetor but if you do, you will go and govern a province - Consul - There was a law that one of  - If one consul dies, a suffect consul will be elected to take over - Preside over meetings related to the senate - Initiate and administer any - Serve as generals for the roman army - Dictator - Only appointed during absolute emergencies - Dictators is selected among the former consuls - Only hold the post for a maximum of 6 months, only a temporary measure - Solitary leader in the empire - Censors - Every 5 years, 2 censors are elected from the formal consuls and they hold the position for 5 years - They watch, regulate and punish any voluptuous habits - Carried out and maintained a general census of property - Lictor - Every main magistrate has an assistant called the lictor - The higher up the ladder, the more lictors a magistrate will have - Lictors will carry around a fasces that is an axe surrounded by a bundle of rods, tied together by a purple ribbon - The lictor is allowed to punish people will this tool, but rarely happens but it is more used as a symbol Political bodies of Rome - Senate - Comes from senex, word literally means old men - During the monarchy, they served as the advisory council for the king - Senates start off with 300 members, by the early 1 century BCE, it increases to 600 people - Censors would select from a pool of people who used to serve office (ex-quaestors and above) to serve as the senate - 1 million sesterces rule only began in Augustus - Senators will meet in the Curia in the Roman Forum. Presiding magistrate will sit up front while the rest sat on the benches - The purpose of the senate is advisory - The senate does international relations, they assign certain generals for certain exhibitions - They assign proconsuls to the province that they have to govern - They debate and pass degrees to be submitted to the assembly for voting - SPQR = senatus populusque Romanus which stands for the senate and the people of Rome - Assemblies - Comitia Curiata (Curiate Assembly) - Made up primarily of patricians - People used to be divided into 30 units based on your gens - This assembly represents the 30 units  - They were stripped of their power almost immediately after the republic is formed - They confirmed the person who is appointed - They witness the priest being appointed - Comitia Centuriata (Century Assembly) - Took over most of the power of the curiate assembly in the beginning of the republic - They appoint consuls, praetors and censors - Council makes declarations of war - Court of appeals for citizens who are sentenced to death - Romans were divided into 193 property based divisions called centuriae, which is determined by your whole net worth, each centuria gets one vote and they vote - They start from the richest group and go down, the moment a majority is reached, they stopped the elections - All citizens could be part of this assembly but it was not entirely democratic, rich people control most of the 193 centuria so their voices are disproportionately represented - Lower groups do not even get the chance to vote - Comitia Tributa (Tribal Assembly) - Mix of patricians and plebeians - They elect aediles and praetors - They basically say yes or no - 35 tribes in rome, 4 are within the Rome city and 31 are outside of Rome, each tribe gets 1 vote and you need a majority to win - Not entirely equitable, people in rural outskirts of Rome are less likely to come to Rome to cast a vote, they are skewed towards the urban tribes who are richer - Within the tribal assembly, there is a subcouncil called concilium plebis for plebeians only, so that plebeians can cast votes and elect tribunes How to vote - People will cross a narrow bridge to cast their vote - Idea is that if people did not walk alone in single file, no one could gather around you and sway your vote - An attendant will hand each voter a small wax tablet, if they are voting on legislation they would say either yes or no, if they are voting on elections then they would write the person’s name - 60 year old off the bridge saying, refers to this bridge Action items Quiz 7 Politics: Greece | Nov 13, 2024 | CLAS 320 A Attendees: Notes Greek politics - Monarchy - Ruled by 1 or 2 kings - Sparta was ruled by 2 kings - Aristocracy - Ruled by the elite - Tyranny - Athens had tyrants in 6th century BCE - Oligarchy - Ruled by a few - Different from aristocracy, because it is just a handful of really rich people - 411 BCE and again in 403-402 BCE - Democracy - Rule of the people - Every full citizen man could serve on jury, vote in assembly, could hold any political office Classical athens democracy - Radical and direct democracy where people had power - Athens was rather small 30,000 people so it was possible - Political bodies - Original council of Athens is called Areopagus, started with a few aristocratic advisors for the King - Names after Areios Pagus which is an area beside the acropolis - Power became very restricted by Ephialtes in 462 BCE - He pushed a few reforms that said that the areopagus was not the main city council, and instead it is only in charge of very few things, premeditated homicides and maintenance of property - Power went to the boule - Originally the people council was made up of 400 male citizens - Kleisthenes reforms the council so that the boule was going to be 500 men and 50 coming from each of the 10 tribes - This council lasted through most of the classical period - Bouleuterion - When each tribe is in charge, they hold prytany, which is 1/10 of the year - People in the council could stay in the tholos while they serve - 1 person will serve as the Epistates every day which is the head - They hand decisions to the Ekklesia (the assembly) to vote on, and they will pass the law - Ekklesia will have to scrutinize candidates who wants to hold office  - Ekklesia meet 3-4 times per month and they meet at the Pnyx - Individuals will speak up and present their views, a person who tries to sway people's views are called demagogues, in a very dramatic way - Voting was done by a show of hands and they estimated - Sensitive topics will be voted by putting pebbles in a box - Athenian magistrates - Selected by lot, randomly chosen - They are subjected to scrutiny to make sure that they are eligible - You cannot hold the same office more than once - You have to show at the end that you did your role well - The king’s duties after the monarchy was shared among the 3 archons - Archon Basileus (king archon) - Religious ceremonies - Preside in areopolis - Eponymous archon - Serves for a year - Chief magistrate and serve as head of state - Polemarch - Polem refers to war, main role is to command the army - This role was eventually given to military commanders - Their new duty was legal and judicial matters for non citizens - Religious duties - 6 Thesmothetai - Lawmakers - There was a group of magistrates called agoranomoi and they oversee the agora to make sure that they are doing fair trade - Sitophylakes are in charge of grain supplies - Astynomoi are city regulators, and they oversee city maintenance - 2 roles that are elected by vote is the city finance officer and military officer strategoi - Strategoi could be reelected multiple times - Financial officers and strategoi are not paid compared to the other magistrate roles - Income for the state - Other city pay tributes - Workers pay tax - Top 1% of the athenian population will be called upon to pay for these services - They are required to pay liturgy which is public service - Equipping trireme (ships) could be called upon on a rich person - Ostracism - Banishing citizens from the city - If 6000 citizens in the assembly agrees to hold the ostracism, they would set a date and prepare a venue, each person would have a ostrakon pl ostraka that they have the name of person they want to banish written on it  - Ostraka would be reused to fill up holes on the streets - Some appears to be mass produced - The person with the most number of ostraka would be banished, ostracized for 10 years, he does not lose his property and his citizen status - Greek law - Nearly all disputes in athens were settled in a peoples court called the Heliaia located in the agora - There were no lawyers so the people had to speak for themselves, there is a jury - You could pay someone to write a speech for you, wealthy people are overrepresented in court cases - People use trials to publicly humiliate their opponents Theatre and music | Nov 12, 2024 | CLAS 320 A Notes Greek dramas - Mainly 2 types of greek drama - Tragoidia (tragos goat + oide song) which means tragedies refer to serious plays where there is usually a bad outcome for the central character, could be named this way because the choruses used to be dressed in goat skin - They are set in a mythical time and gods are involved - Thespis invented the first tragedy around 534 BCE and the prime of greek tragedy is from the 5th century - Komoidia (komos drunken revelers + oide song) or comedy refers to dramas that are funny and have a much lighter tone - One of the main venues for performance of drama was the festival City or Great Dionysia - Instituted by the tyrant Peisistratos in the 6th century BCE - Takes place 3 months after rural dionysia in late March early April, attended by Athenians and medics who were visiting Athens, and also athenian allies - Athens would collect tribute from their allies and their allies sometimes would stay and watch a play - Held at the Theatre of Dionysus, south slope of the acropolis and a statue of dionysus would be carried into the theater to represent that Dionysus could witness the play in the form of a statue - During the opening ceremony, children whose father has died in war would be dressed up in battle gear and were paraded around to be blessed - City of Dionysia primarily hosts tragedies, but starting 486 BCE, comedies were performed there too, and in 440 BCE the athenians decided to establish a separate festival called Lenaia that is held at the end of January How to stage a dramatic performance  - Submit a trilogy of 3 tragedies to the magistrate eponymous archon - Submit a satyr play that contains the trilogy - If you are a comedy poet, you submit one play - Eponymous archon decides which plays are played at the festival - 1 tragedy trilogy and 3 comedies - Eponymous archon would assign a Choregos who is a rich person who is in charge of paying and training all the actors in the pay - In 5th century BCE, plays would be put on only once at a particular festival - Only in the 4th century did we begin to see revivals Theater - Theatron is the seating space and usually cut into a hillside with steeply cut seats - Seats was arranged in wedges with passageways - Section on the ground is the orchestra is the dancing space, where the chorus will be dancing - Orchestra is surrounded entirely by the theatron - Skene refers to hut, tent, it houses the changing rooms of the actors - Painted as the backdrop of the play - Theatre of dionysus - 20,000 spectators - Front rows are reserved for important people like priests, magistrates and visitors - Center seat was reserved for dionysus eleuthereus - Other people will sit in the section that was allocated to their tribes - Entrance fee was 3 obels but it was eventually free - Not certain if women could attend - Ekkyklema is a stage prop that was rolled out to the audience, it is used to reveal what was inside the temple or palace (platform on wheels that is rolled out) - Mechane (machine) is a crane that allows a character to be transferred on and off stage, into the orchestra - Used for gods - Deux ex machina is a phrase used to refer to gods that swing into rescue - Khoros (chorus) but it refers to people who sing, dance, play musical instruments, around 12-15 people - They come out at the end of the first scene and stay there for the rest of the play - Role is to comment on the actions of the actors - Actors - Earliest tragedy plays only have 1 actor that would switch parts during the play but they eventually increased to 3 - All actors were male citizens, even playing as women parts - They would just put on a mask and costume to play a different role - Actors would wear kothornos - Show would be judged by krites and there would be 1 representative from each tribe - Winner would win a cash prize - Winning choregos would erect a monument in his own honor - Playwrights (starting from the 5th century BCE)  - Aeschylos - he increased the number of actors from 1 to 2 - Sophokles - tragic writer who introduced the 3rd actor - Euripides - someone who depicts women and slaves in a more humane way - Aristophanes - writes comedies topically about modern politicians, a lot of insults, sexual references, but they allude to current events and makes them a little harder to read - Menander - pioneered new comedy in 4th century BCE - Tragedies have violence but the violence is never depicted - Lots of comedians talk about important social problems solved in a funny way Mousike - Refers to all things related to Apollo and the 12 muses - Earliest musicians we know are traveling poets - Kithara is a type of lyre, simplest version is a tortoise shell with 7 strings - Barbitos is a variation of this, strings are longer - Aulos is a hollow pipe made of wood, bronze or bone and there are holes poked into this and they are normally played with 2 - Syrinx is a number of pipes bound together and you blow - Salpinx is a large trumpet looking instrument played at the start of battles - Percussion instruments like maracas and drums are used for religious practices Roman plays - From 3rd century BCE onwards, they are played - All male and they all wore masks with exaggerated features - Actors are usually slaves and formerly enslaved people rather than citizens - Either slaves owned by the state or private individuals who rent out their slaves to perform - It is not a honorable thing to be an actor - Romans are better known for their comedies - Plautus and Terence are 2 famous comedy writers - Ludi Romani was a place where they would put on plays Theaters - Plays were normally put up and taken down, so they were temporary structures - Theatre of Pompey, Theatre of Balbus and Theatre of marcellus were built - Roman theatres were built on their own foundations rather than built into rock - They were closed rather than overseeing a scenery - The dancing space was a semicircle rather than a full circle - Scaena is the stage and scaenae frons is the front of the stage, with 3 doors leading to the back - It became decoratively more elaborate over time - Mimes and pantomimes became popular in 150 BCE - Roman mimes are people who sing, perform and dance but they do not wear masks - They were very violent and lowclass - Pantomimes are people who also dance, but they do not sing and they wear masks - Mimes and pantomimes could be women Music - Part of theatrical performances, battles - When poetry is recited, they are recited with music - Tibiae is the same thing as the aulos, oboe like instrument - Cithara is the same as kithara which is the string instrument - Cornu is a large french horn - Tuba is a trumpet over 3 feet long, similar to salpinx - Hydraulic organ is a organ played with water that was invented in the hellenistic period but adopted by the romans - Cymbals are used by religious cults Perception of Theaters - It was widely accepted, but people did not want their own people to be acting in theaters - A freeborn person would not pursue as a full time career but rather a hobby - Plato did not like theaters Action items Festivals | Nov 7, 2024 | CLAS 320 A Notes Festivals in Greece - Some festivals are held on the theme and some are civic festivals for the whole city and some are panhellenic festivals for the whole greek world - One common thing is a procession where people proceed to the shrine of a particular god - Singing of hymns - Some have contests - Perform a sacrifice - Some festivals in the year - Thesmophoria in October - Festival in honor of Demeter and her daughter Persephone - Held exclusively for citizen women - One ritual is taking little sacrificial pig piglets and putting them in the snake infested pits - 3 days later, the women are lowered down to these pits to retrieve whatever remains of the piglets - Pig bodies are mixed with seed grains and offered to the goddess - It is supposed to be an reenactment of persephone’s descent into Hades - Persephone is supposed to be the one eating the piglet - Promote fertility and facilitate germination of grain - Oschophoria - Harvest for the grapes for wine - There are 2 young men who are selected and dressed up as women, and they could carry these vine branches with grapes called oschoi - In honor of dionysus - Haloa in December - In honor of dionysus and demeter - Took place after the harvest was over and this was only for women, freed or enslaved - Animal sacrifices were forbidden and only grain and fruit could be sacrificed - Women would talk about sex and consume cakes in the shape of phalluses and mock each other - Dionysia - Rural Dionysia in end December - Held in the countryside of Attica - There is a procession where a giant model of a phallus is carried around - Followed by singing dancing contests - A few months later, second part of the festival called the City or Great Dionysia in late March or April - Also includes a procession including the giant phallus that they carry - Everyone is involved in the city - Some dramatic performances were staged that depicts comedies and tragedies - Anthesteria in late January - Flower festival for dionysus - WIne jars that contain newly fermented wine are opened up and everyone drank - Children who are 4 years old are initiated into the community and they get their first taste of wine - Thargelia in late May - In honor of birthdays of Apollo and Artemis - Offer a pot of boiled vegetables - 1 or 2 human scapegoats are chosen based on their ugliness, they are beaten up and driven out of the city to represent chasing away hunger - Pyanopsia in October - Held in honor of Apollo and it means stewing - Offer a bean stew to apollo - Procession where children carry branches that are laden with wool and fruits and cake and they would go around the city and hang these branches on every front door of every house - Taphai - Meaning burials - Annual ceremony held in honor of those who had died in war  - End of the war campaigning season in early winter - Bones of the dead are put in a tent and people can make offerings - Coffins of cypress wood are carried on wagons, one coffin for each tribe and the coffin carries all the bones of members of that tribe - Everyone can join in the procession and women who are related to the dead make their laments - Man does a speech to praise the dead after the bones are laid in the earth - Chytroi - Meaning pots, another festival for the dead - Late January early February - In the third day of the festival, there is mini festival called Kotori where the souls of the dead were thought to leave their graves and start wandering around - People would offer pots of barley porridge to feed the dead - Greeks would smear their doors with pitch so the dead could not wander in and pollute the house - Genesia in mid September - Yearly festival to honor the dead - Everyone goes to pay their respects to their deceased ancestors - Nemeseia - Happens at night - Meant to appease people who died violent deaths - Panathenaia in mid August - Unique to Athens - All athens festival to commemorate the birthday of Athena - Procession starts from Dipylon gate, along the panathenaic way and wall the way to the acropolis - Head of the procession is the athenian cavalry, girls carrying baskets of barley, boys carrying pitchers of water, men carry olive branches and medics carry trays with cakes on it - They make a sacrifice to Athena a herd of cows and meat is distributed to all the participants - Every 4 years there is a great panathenaia, girls will offer up a new peplos (dress) to Athena because the goddess needs a new dress - Competitions such as recitations of poems of Homer, dancing, musical contests of people playing flute and the harp - If you are the winner of the panathenaia games, you will win a prize one of the large jug filled with olive oil, and the jug will depict whatever you win Festivals in Rome - Roman calendar has lots of holidays, feria pl feriae is festivals - Religious rituals will be performed and accompanied by some public entertainment - Saturnalia - On of the oldest Roman festivals, it started off as an agriculture festival  - It used to honor the agriculture god Saturn - It is celebrated when the last wheat crop is sown on December 17 - Romans added more dates to it, in the mid empire this celebration was a week long - The roman senators would perform a mass animal sacrifice to Saturn and followed by a huge banquet - Rest of the festivals involve a lot of parties, feasts and shops would be closed, courts and schools would be closed - It is a time just to have fun and you do not have to follow the rules - People are celebrating and drinking a lot - Within each household, the family will choose a leader to preside over the party, often someone of a low status like a slave or a child - There is an insistence of status inversion, slaves are treated equal if not better than freed people - Nearly everyone would wear a freedom cap - Emperor Domitian wanted to put a gladiatorial show, everything has to be inverted so poor people were allowed to sit in the emperors seat - Lupercalia on February 15 - Holiday is commemorating the story of Romulus and Remus - Priests would go to a cave that they believe is the home of the wolf lupa and they sacrifice several goats and a dog - 2 young aristocratic men would have their foreheads smeared with the blood from the knives - Priest would wipe off the blood with a wool soaked in milk - The sacrificed goats would have the goat skin sliced into pieces, young roman men would strip naked, taking the goatskin straps in their hands and run around palatine hill whipping people - The men would target women and whip them - The women generally wanted to get whipped, because it was believed that they would be more fertile - Parilia - Foundation day on April 21 753 BCE - Originally, festival was for the god Pares which is a god of shepherds, and it got merged with Rome’s birthday - They take bales of hay, light them on fire and drunk revelers try to leap over them - Lemuria aka Lemuralia in early May - Purpose is to appease the spirits of people who had died prematurely who are waiting for their lives to come to an end before they move on - Lemur is the spirits who have died prematurely - Performed in each household and they do different rituals - Pater familias would wake up at midnight, feet bear, no knots in clothing and he would do a gesture to ward off any evil that will come to him and his family - He will wash his hands and walk through his house with black beans in his mount  - He walks around and spits the beans on the floor 9 times while saying a redemption speech - He would have 2 bronze vessels and he would clank them together - The idea is that lemures are following him, and the ghosts would eat the beans that he spits on the floor, and after that he has cleared his house of ghosts - Capratine Nones on July 5 - Capratine refers to the plant caprificius - Sometime in early 4th century BCE, the romans know latins, and the latins want rome to send some women to latin but Romans did not want that - A girl called Tutula gave the idea that slaves be dressed up as free born roman girls to fool them, the latins believed - When the latin men were sleeping, the girls removed all of the men’s weapons and Tutula signals to the romans that they coast was clear and the romans can attack the latins - Romans successfully attacked and defeated the latins - During the festival, there is a reenactment of this festival - Roman men would run out of the city gates calling out like they are going into battle, enslaved girls and women join in to tease and taunt the men, mock battle ensues and picnic lunch is held and everyone celebrates - Bona Dea in December - Good goddess related to chastity and fertility - Any festivals for the bona dea were not open to men - Small festival is held in the house of the senior magistrates of the city, thrown by the wife, and it is only open to elite women - House is supposed to be cleansed of all male influence, including male dogs and male statues - Women would perform sacrifices and they drink lots of wine - Vestal virgins come to the parties with the cult states of bona dea - Ludi Romani in September 4-19 - Roman games - Preceded by a big procession that stretch from the capitoline hill through the roman forum all the way to the circus maximus - Parade of young aristocratic men on horseback, charioteers are walking on foot, athletes will be performing, dancers, entertainers, flute and lyre players - Men carry the statues or images of the gods on their shoulders - Consuls and priests would sacrifice oxen to the gods, give out the meat to everyone who attends - Horse races, chariot races, foot races and boxing and wrestling matches at the circus maximus Action items Quiz 6 Magic and religion: Rome | Nov 6, 2024 | CLAS 320 A Notes Magic in Rome - Every social status held superstitious beliefs - If augustus woke up and put on the wrong shoe on the wrong foot, he would count it as bad omen - Cursed tablets are made out of lead and they use it to curse their rivals, their competitors - Buttons made of bone, crystals, tiny representation of skulls, dolls and the scholars thing that this is a toolkit used by a sorceress who use this to tell the future Religion - Polytheistic (believe in many gods) - How to get the attention of gods - Say a prayer and call upon the gods by all of their associated names - Perform a sacrifice like goats, sheeps, cows, birds, horses - Walk the animal up to an altar at a temple and sacrifice them - Generally, you sacrifice a male animal to a male god and a female animal to a female goddess - If you are sacrificing animal to the gods above, pick a lighter colored animal - They try to pick the physically fittest animal because a deformed animal is like a insult to the gods - Sometimes they decorate the animal by tying ribbons - Worshippers would go into the temple before the sacrifice and they would write their worships on a wax tablet before they go out of the temple for the sacrifice - Priests have their head covered - Animal is supposed to go willingly and the animal is slaughtered, if the animal is going up then you have to cut up - If the animal runs away, it is a bad sign from the gods - Heart liver and internal organs are removed, they are cut up and internal organs would burn them - Rest of the meat they gaul up and give to the participants - When Coluguna became emperor, he had 160000 cattle slaughtered - Ro