Neap Notes PDF

1.4 Analysing and answering report questions ❖1.4.1 Read the whole question twice It is important that you interpret the question accurately and clearly. First impressions can lead to an error which may fail to meet your marker's expectations. ❖1.4.2 Look for instruction words In most...

1.4 Analysing and answering report questions ❖1.4.1 Read the whole question twice It is important that you interpret the question accurately and clearly. First impressions can lead to an error which may fail to meet your marker's expectations. ❖1.4.2 Look for instruction words In most of your university essay questions, you will find one or more instruction words that tell you what your essay should do. Therefore, to interpret the question accurately, you must understand exactly what these words mean. ❖An instruction word (or task word) tells you how to approach your assignment. ❖What are the instruction words in this assignment? Discuss how global warming affects the environment. Describe how we can make our environment sustainable. ❖The main instruction words in this assignment are DISCUSS & DESCRIBE. The meanings of these words are very important to identify before you even begin working on your assignment. ❖Analyse: Break down the issue into parts, discuss them and show how they interrelate. ❖Assess: Consider the value or importance of the issue, paying attention to positive, negative and disputable aspects. ❖Comment on: Analyse or assess the issue. ❖Compare: Look for similarities and differences between the issues. ❖Contrast: Point out the differences between the issues. ❖Criticise: Make your judgements about the issues and indicate the criteria on which you base those judgements. ❖Define: Make a statement as to the meaning or interpretation of the issue, giving enough detail to allow it to be distinguished from similar issues. ❖Describe:Mention the main aspects of the issue, retell the essential features of a story, or spell out the sequence of events in which the issue occurred. ❖Discuss: Analyse the key issue and possible interpretations. Give reasons for and against and draw a conclusion. ❖Evaluate: Similar to 'assess', consider your opinion on the issue and show the arguments for and against your position. ❖Examine:Present your issue in depth and investigate the implications. ❖Explain: Describe and analyse the issue and give reasons for the issue. ❖Identify: Pick out what you consider the key features of the issue. ❖Illustrate: Use examples and where possible use diagrams, statistics, images or visual representations. ❖Interpret: Clarify or explain, usually giving your judgment or indicating how the issues relate to one another. ❖Outline: Indicate the main features of the issue and organise your answer into a clear structure that shows how they interrelate. ❖1.4.3 Look for topic words (key words) Topic words (or keywords) are usually easy to locate. They tell you what you have to write about. Use these keywords to find information on your topic. e.g. Discuss the differences between in-text citations and the reference list. Use relevant examples in your discussion. ❖1.4.4 Look for any other that restrict the topic in any way Restricting words are words or phrases that narrow the topic and make it more specific. Geographical location and date are both common restrictions. ❖1.4.5 Rewrite the question Once you have analysed the question, check your understanding. Try to rewrite the question using your own words by completing the following sentence in no more than 25 words. e.g. The question is asking me to...  1.6 Formulating a research topic ❖Usually with mini thesis, project, thesis etc. ❖Formulate a question to research on/given questions to respond to (based on the objectives of the course outline). ❖Gaps in literature ❖Unusual situation/ circumstance ❖Curiosity ❖Experimenting – what if … An investigation on the effect of prenatal care on the health of the expecting mothers and their babies.  1.7 Academic summaries ❖a concise, succinct representation of an academic text such as a scholarly book, journal article, and research report ❖The main purpose of summaries is to enable the reader in a limited time to determine why a paper, a journal article, a book chapter or a book is worth reading ❖ an academic summary is useful so that readers can briefly understand the contents of a journal to then become a consideration of whether it is appropriate for what the reader is looking for. ❖Academic summary is sometimes confused with abstract. ❖An abstract is a brief representation of the aim, method, main results and conclusions of the study, whereas an academic summary typically shows the (argumentation) structure of the text, i.e. the skeleton of the arguments. ❖summary must be written in flowing text in the words of the author's own work, i.e., the author cannot take words exactly from the source text or the original text. ❖the summary must be written in a language that is in accordance with the formal rules in English and must also be easily understood by people who are not familiar with the original text  Types of academic summaries ❖i). descriptive ii). evaluative ❖not all summaries will fit perfectly into one of these categories, but these descriptions can help you know where to start when writing a summary  Descriptive summary ❖very much rooted in expressing facts. ❖focuses on the essence of the item under review, sharing the main point and any important, supporting details ❖the writer’s opinion is rarely found in a descriptive summary. ❖It is a concise description of the work, which means the writer uses as a few words as possible to convey the essential elements of the item being summarised.  Evaluative summary ❖Just like the word “evaluative” suggests, this type of summary requires the writer to evaluate the item being summarised. ❖This classification of summary is opinion-heavy. ❖While a few basic facts about the piece are required, such as the author and the title and the main point of the piece, the remainder consists of the summary writer’s viewpoints of the work. ❖The author will detail his or her perception of the work in such areas as intended audience and purpose and how well these are addressed in the work. ❖The person evaluating the item will also look at how this item will be useful to him or her and examine where it falls short. ❖Because the types and frequency of examination found in the evaluative summary may involve extensive explanation, it will very likely be longer than the typical descriptive summary  When are these used? ❖Descriptive: A writer uses a descriptive summary when he or she wants to gain and express an understanding of what the author said in the original text. ❖Evaluative: A writer will choose this summary type when he or she wants to examine the original text for usefulness, validity, strength of argument, or other important elements.  Paragraphing ❖A paragraph is a collection of related sentences organised together because they share the same argument focused on one main idea. A paragraph is made up of a minimum of three sentences and a maximum of five sentences.  Importance of paragraphs ❖They help us to organise our ideas in longer texts such as letters and essays. ❖ They make it easier for the reader to follow our ideas. ❖ They show where one topic or idea ends and another one begins.  Paragraph structure ❖Generally, paragraphs in English, have three principal parts. These three parts are the topic sentence, supporting sentences, and the concluding sentence. ❖The topic sentence is often at or near the start of the paragraph and sets out what the paragraph is about. ❖The supporting or developing sentences expand the topic sentence. This is the main body of the paragraph. ❖The concluding sentence, at the end of the paragraph summarises the information that has been presented. You can think of a concluding sentence as a sort of topic sentence in reverse.  Example of a paragraph Canada is one of the best countries in the world to live in. First, Canada has an excellent health care system. All Canadians have access to medical services at a reasonable price. Second, Canada has a high standard of education. Students are taught by well‐trained teachers and are encouraged to continue studying at university. Finally, Canada's cities are clean and efficiently managed. Canadian cities have many parks and lots of space for people to live. As a result, Canada is a desirable place to live.  Exercise ❖Write a paragraph about your best friend.  PEEL STRUCTURE ❖While there are various formulas you can follow to write a paragraph in your essay, they all require you to do the same thing: elaborate on one key issue that you have highlighted in your introduction. ❖It is important that you only focus on one idea per paragraph, and that these ideas specifically relate to the question.  Paragraphs should always ❖Commence with a topic sentence. The topic sentence signals to the reader what your paragraph is going to be about. ❖Contain evidence to validate/support your answer. ❖Tie back to the essay question. ❖Include the “content” words from the question.  Paragraphs should never: ❖Contain more than one key idea. ❖Raise an idea that you cannot support with evidence. ❖Bring in new information that is not relevant to the topic. PEEL STRUCTURE  EXAMPLE Advocates of online learning often refer to its advantages over traditional instructor-led training. The most immediate advantage is that online learning facilitates ease of delivery where employees may be geographically dispersed (Noe, 2002), or where the task of organizing a physical space for training would take time or even production space (Dobbs, 2000). Consequently, a significant advantage of online learning is that it is cost-effective: the company does not incur travel expenses or lose production hours. Given these savings in costs, it would seem that computer technology may easily replace the HRM professional.  EXAMPLE 2 In order to support the educational needs of ATSI students, all teachers should undergo professional training to assist with their development of culturally appropriate pedagogies. At present, many pre-service teachers find they are ill-equipped to teach Indigenous students, primarily because they lack knowledge about Aboriginal culture and history (Craven, Yeung, & Han, 2014). Lavery, Cain and Hampton (2014) argue that in order to negate this disconnect, teacher institutes should develop links with Aboriginal communities, and that pre-service learning should include immersion and partnership programs with ATSI communities. Ultimately, it is imperative that teachers construct a rich and culturally sensitive repertoire for teaching Indigenous students. For this reason, appropriate professional development through collaboration with ATSI communities should become a mandatory component of pedagogical training for both beginning and experienced teachers.  Presenting own voice in your writing ❖It is important to balance the ideas and arguments expressed in your voice with those of other authors, who are usually scholars in the field of study. ❖The purpose of academic writing is to present a clear position on a topic, so your reader wants to see that you have a personal ‘voice’ on the topic and have used it to successfully build an academic argument. ❖Including a range of voices as evidence in your academic writing will support and develop your position. These ‘other voices’ are usually supplied by scholars in the field and will need to be clearly distinguished from your voice and cited appropriately Tips for using a variety of voices in assessment tasks ❖Start and end each paragraph in your own voice. ❖In an essay, your voice should be the strongest in the introduction and conclusion. It’s best not to begin or end your essay referencing another writer’s words. ❖Other voices should feature in the body paragraphs of your assessment task to provide evidence and support to your ideas, claims and argument. ❖Use your voice to manage and contextualise the voices of others. This is where ‘reporting verbs’ and connectives are helpful. ❖Clearly distinguish between your voice and the voices of other sources, and cite each source appropriately. Readers assume that words without citations are your own, so if they are not, you must cite them  EXAMPLE The current diversity of the student population poses a great challenge to universities. A common approach to providing learning support is by extra-curricular study skills courses, often offered in dedicated learning support centres (Gamache, 2002; Haggis & Pouget, 2002). This approach is referred to as ‘bolt-on’ (Bennett et al., 2000) as opposed to the ‘built-in’ or embedded approach where learning is developed through the subject teaching. ❖Key: writer’s voice, synthesis of other voices, other voice.  Things to Remember: ❖Never have more than one key idea in a paragraph. ❖Don’t ignore the “direction” word in the essay, as this word tells you what kind of approach you are expected to maintain throughout your discussion. ❖Back up, back up, back up! If you can’t back up an argument with evidence, don’t use it! ❖Always link each paragraph to the question – a good way to do this is to integrate key words in the question (or synonyms of those words) throughout your essay. Unity and Coherence in paragraph writing ❖Unity means that all the sentences refer to the main idea, or the topic of the paragraph. ❖Coherence means that the sentences should be organized in a logical manner and should follow a definite plan of development.  Transitions/Cohesive devices ❖Transitions or linking words are words that are used to connect sentences within a paragraph, or to connect paragraphs together in longer texts, e.g. essays. ❖Addition: also, again, as well as, besides, coupled with, furthermore, in addition, likewise, similarly. ❖Consequence: accordingly, as a result, consequently, for this reason, for this purpose, hence, otherwise, so then, subsequently, therefore, thus, thereupon, wherefore. ❖Generalizing: as a rule, as usual, for the most part, generally, generally speaking, ordinarily, usually ❖Exemplifying: chiefly, especially, for instance, in particular, markedly, namely, particularly, including, specifically, such as ❖Illustration: for example, for instance, for one thing, as an illustration, illustrated with, as an example,in this case ❖Emphasis: above all, chiefly, with attention to, especially, particularly, singularly ❖Similarity: comparatively, coupled with, correspondingly, identically, likewise, similar, moreover, together with ❖Exception: aside from, barring, besides, except, excepting, excluding, exclusive of, other than, outside of, save ❖Restatement: in essence, in other words, namely, that is, that is to say, in short, in brief, to put it differently ❖Contrast and Comparison: contrast, by the same token, conversely, instead, likewise, on one hand, on the other hand, on the contrary, rather, similarly, yet, but, however, still, nevertheless, in contrast ❖Sequence: at first, first of all, to begin with, in the first place, at the same time, for now, for the time being, the next step, in time, in turn, later on, meanwhile, next, then, soon, the meantime, later, while, earlier, simultaneously, afterward, in conclusion, with this in mind, ❖Summarising: after all, all in all, all things considered, briefly, by and large, in any case, in any event, in brief, in conclusion, on the whole, in short, in summary, in the final analysis, in the long run, on balance, to sum up, to summarize, finally ❖To show addition: again, and, also, besides, equally important, first (second, etc.), further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, moreover, next, too ❖To show time: after, afterward, as, as long as, as soon as, at last, before, during, earlier, finally, formerly, immediately, later, meanwhile, next, since, shortly, subsequently, then, thereafter, until, when, while ❖To show place or direction: above, below, beyond, close, elsewhere, farther on, here, nearby, opposite, to the left (north, etc.) ❖To indicate logical relationship: accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for this reason, hence, if, otherwise, since, so, then, therefore, thus  Exercise 1. Write a paragraph describing a recent vacation that you took with your family. Be sure to describe the paragraph in detail and conclude with what you loved most about your trip. 2. Write a paragraph about a special childhood toy. 3. Write a paragraph about the career you are considering. 4. Write a paragraph about an important person in Namibian history. Plagiarism  Plagiarism ❖Using information legally is important in academia. When you write your assignment, you MUST acknowledge where you got your information. ❖Copying and pasting information in your assignment, and hoping your lecturer won’t notice will not work. ❖When you use someone else’s words, and you do not acknowledge them as your source, you are “plagiarising”; when you acknowledge them as a source, you are “citing”  What is plagiarism? ❖Form of misconduct ❖Serious offense under university/institute regulations ❖Taking and using another person’s thoughts and presenting them as if they were one’s own ❖Copying another student’s work ❖Downloading an assignment from the internet ❖Helping or colluding with others to cheat ❖Citing a source improperly ❖Failure to cite a source ❖Creation of false sources  Why is plagiarism a bad thing? ❖infringes academic ethics and academic norms ❖a form of theft and a type of fraud ❖plagiarists ultimately cheat themselves ❖plagiarists cheat their fellow students ❖plagiarism reflects incompetence ❖failure of assignment ❖expelled/disqualified/suspended/ from the academia What happens to plagiarists?  What happens to plagiarists? ❖You sign a written declaration about plagiarism for every piece of work you submit ❖Markers are skilled at picking up plagiarism and some institutes have powerful software available for detecting plagiarism e.g. Urkund, Turnitin, Copyscape, Grammarly, PlagScan, Quetext, ProWritingAid, Copyleaks Plagiarism Checker, Unicheck etc. ❖ If markers suspect plagiarism, they notify the chair of the institute and supply evidence ❖The accused is invited to respond to the charge ❖If found guilty, the piece of work in question is graded ZERO  What happens to plagiarists? ❖Consequences for your overall grade the module in question – mean consequences for your degree ❖Possible disciplinary action by the institute  Reasons why students plagiarise 1. The pressures of workload : The importance of developing time management skills 2. Pressures to succeed 3. Poor understanding of the nature of plagiarism: confusion, stubbornness, lack of self-respect 4. Because its easy!  How can plagiarism be avoided? (Direct quoting) ❖Keep the person’s name near the quote in your notes, and in your paper ❖Select those direct quotes that make the most impact in your paper -- too many direct quotes may lessen your credibility and interfere with your style ❖Mention the person’s name either at the beginning of the quote, in the middle, or at the end ❖Put quotation marks around the text that you are quoting ❖Indicate added phrases in brackets ([ ]) and omitted text with ellipses (...) ❖Ensure you note exact page numbers in the reference How can plagiarism be avoided? (Indirect quoting: paraphrasing) ❖Keep the person’s name near the text in your notes, and in your paper ❖Rewrite the key ideas using different words and sentence structures than the original text ❖Mention the person’s name either at the beginning of the information, or in the middle, or at that end ❖Double check to make sure that your words and sentence structures are different than the original text  Types of plagiarisms ❖Direct Plagiarism ❖Hired Plagiarism ❖Borrowed Plagiarism ❖Self-Plagiarism ❖Mosaic Plagiarism ❖Collaboration Plagiarism ❖Contributing Author Plagiarism ❖Aggregated Plagiarism ❖Outline Plagiarism ❖Bibliography Plagiarism ❖Secondary Source Plagiarism ❖Accidental Plagiarism ❖Direct plagiarism is copying a part of an individual’s work without changing anything about it and integrating it into your own work or handing it in as if you did it. ❖It is not copying the whole piece, but instead taking fragments of it word-for-word without paraphrasing anything. ❖ In cases of direct plagiarism, the writer does not add quotation marks or anything that may make the text seem like someone else’s writing. ❖Additionally, there are no citations or listed sources.  Example of direct plagiarism Examples of direct plagiarism includes: - Copying specific sections or paragraphs from a source without crediting the author. - Dropping a line or two from your source directly into your work without quoting or citing the source. - Including a direct quote without quotation marks ❖Hired plagiarism is one of the worst forms of offense. ❖ Because you do not only copy someone else’s work and try to pass it off as yours, but you hire someone to write something, only for you to hand it in like it is yours. Examples of hired plagiarism includes: - buying someone’s else works and passing it off as if it is yours. - Paying someone to write your assignment and submitting it as if you did it. - Paying online websites such as tutor.com, chegg and brainly to write/do your assignments. ❖Plagiarizing is very common among students, and it can involve borrowing assignments from friends. ❖You might have many friends who took the same course with different teachers. ❖ Using a paper written by a friend is considered borrowed plagiarism. ❖ Borrowed Plagiarism is when you borrow someone else’s work and hand it in or copy it and then hand it in as your own. ❖Examples of Borrowed Plagiarism: - borrowing each others’ assignments to hand them in to different - teachers. - borrowing another student’s answers and copy them  Self-Plagiarism ❖Self-plagiarism is when you use a piece you submitted earlier for a new project. ❖For example, if you are taking a literature course, you may be tempted to hand in a paper that you have written in an earlier year for a different class. ❖That’s called self-plagiarism because you did not actually create a new, original assignment. ❖In the end, you will be using your own work, so you may not view is as taboo as stealing someone else’s. However, that does not make it any better, and it’s still plagiarism.  Mosaic Plagiarism ❖Mosaic plagiarism is the same concept as direct plagiarism in the sense that you copy a piece of someone else’s work. ❖However, rather than copying the entire part and putting it as it is, you copy a couple of sentences of someone else’s work and put them amid your text without citing them or quoting them. ❖They flow naturally as if you wrote them, but they are not yours. ❖It is called mosaic plagiarism because it is similar to patching something up using several scattered pieces.  Collaboration Plagiarism ❖ When a group of students works on something, and only one student hands it as if he did it alone, it is considered collaboration plagiarism, even if the other students agree to it. ❖The idea of collaborating is encouraged in academic settings, but when it is an individual project and a group works on it, it is unethical, especially when it is handed in with only one name on it.  Contributing Author Plagiarism ❖It involves not crediting an editor or author who had contributed to the assignment. Similarly, if someone edits the work by making significant changes, that person must be acknowledged to avoid plagiarism.  Aggregated Plagiarism ❖Aggregation is copying someone else’s work without changing anything, but unlike direct plagiarism, you actually cite the author. ❖It seems a good idea to give credit when it is due, but the thing is, aggregation’s boundaries are unclear. ❖Some people exploit other people’s work for their own gains, so even if they are citing the sources, it is still considered plagiarism.  Outline Plagiarism ❖Outline plagiarism is copying another person’s outline instead of the text itself. ❖ For example, it is when you decide to copy an article’s entire skeleton, including its headings, but without copying the actual text. ❖Some may think it is not an offense because you are not using the other person’s words. ❖ However, you are still stealing their ideas and their arrangement of thoughts, so it is no better than copying the actual words.  Bibliography Plagiarism ❖A bibliography is a list included by researchers at the end of their papers, listing the sources that they used to write. ❖When you steal someone else’s bibliography and hand it in with your work, it is considered one form of plagiarism. ❖Even if you did the research yourself, you still took someone else’s list of sources without listing your own, so it is an unethical offense.  Secondary Source Plagiarism ❖Secondary plagiarism occurs when you use secondary sources for your paper without citing them. So, you mention your main source, but you also use other sources without citing them. ❖These secondary sources can be anything, ranging from books and articles to reviews and even commentaries. ❖A lot of writers think they’d get away with secondary plagiarism because they already cited the main source, but it’s still plagiarism when you use someone else’s work without crediting them.  Accidental Plagiarism ❖Accidental plagiarism is among the controversial types of plagiarism. Technically, the person who did it did it accidentally or without a full intention to steal someone else’s work. So, this makes it less of an offense. ❖However, it does not remove the ‘plagiarism’ label on it. ❖In a nutshell, accidental plagiarism is when someone unintentionally spins someone else’s words. ❖ Or, it is when someone forgets to cite a source or credit an author. I ❖t’s not too different from mosaic plagiarism, but the main major difference is that it is unintended. REPORT/ESSAY WRITING  What we are going to learn ❖Essay writing ❖Qualitative approach ❖Quantitative approach ❖Mixed methods approach  What is an essay ? ❖ An essay is a piece of writing that usually has five or more paragraphs. ❖ An essay is written about one topic that has several main points. ❖ The main points are introduced in an introductory paragraph and supported in body paragraphs. ❖ The conclusion is the last paragraph.  Parts of an essay ❖Introduction ❖Body ❖Conclusion  An Introduction ❖An introductory paragraph is the first paragraph in an essay. It contains two parts. 1. An Attention-Getter: a few sentences about your subject that catch the attention of your reader. 2. A Thesis Statement: one sentence that tells your reader the main points of your topic and states the overall “plan” of your essay.  Body paragraphs ❖The body consists of one or more paragraphs following the introduction. ❖Each paragraph supports the main idea of your essay by breaking it down into smaller ideas or sub-topics. ❖Each body paragraph consists of a topic sentence and several supporting sentences. ❖A conclusion sentence draws the paragraph together.  The conclusion ❖The conclusion paragraph is the last paragraph in the essay. ❖It completes the essay by summarising or repeating the most important ideas. ❖The conclusion can also include an opinion, a prediction, or a solution to a problem.  Research report ❖Research writing has been defined as a circular process of thinking of ideas, conducting research, writing as you go along, going back to ideas and possibly back to research, continuing writing and so on. ❖Research can be seen as any systematic investigation in search of knowledge to solve a problem. Academic research is an organized, systematic, logical and rigorous process of inquiry. ❖The final stage in the process of research writing involves writing a report (dissertation, thesis, journal article etc.) of what your research was all about detailing all the stages of the research process, findings and recommendations.  Qualitative approach ❖Qualitative approach involves collecting and analyzing non- numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research. ❖Qualitative approach is used to understand how people experience the world. While there are many approaches to qualitative research, they tend to be flexible and focus on retaining rich meaning when interpreting data. ❖Commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc.  Qualitative research methods ❖Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes. ❖Interviews: personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations. ❖Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people. ❖Surveys: distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions. ❖Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.  Quantitative approach ❖Quantitative approach is the process of collecting and analysing numerical data. ❖It can be used to find patterns and averages, make predictions, test causal relationships, and generalize results to wider populations. ❖Widely used in the natural and social sciences: biology, chemistry, psychology, economics, sociology, marketing, etc.  Quantitative research methods You can use quantitative research methods for descriptive, correlational or experimental research. ❖In descriptive research, you simply seek an overall summary of your study variables. ❖In correlational research, you investigate relationships between your study variables. ❖In experimental research, you systematically examine whether there is a cause-and-effect relationship between variables.  Mixed methods ❖Mixed methods research combines elements of quantitative research and qualitative research in order to answer your research question. ❖Mixed methods can help you gain a more complete picture than a standalone quantitative or qualitative study, as it integrates benefits of both methods. ❖Mixed methods research may be the right choice if your research process suggests that quantitative or qualitative data alone will not sufficiently answer your research question.  Mixed method research design ❖There are different types of mixed methods research designs. The differences between them relate to the aim of the research, the timing of the data collection, and the importance given to each data type. ❖Convergent parallel ❖Embedded ❖Explanatory sequential ❖Exploratory sequential Convergent Parallel Design: ❖In this design, researchers collect both quantitative and qualitative data simultaneously. ❖The data are analyzed separately, and the results are compared or merged to gain a comprehensive understanding of the research topic. ❖It’s like having two parallel streams of data that converge at the analysis stage. Embedded Design: ❖In an embedded design, researchers collect and analyze both types of data within a larger quantitative or qualitative study. ❖Quantitative data may be the primary focus, with qualitative data providing additional context or depth1. ❖Think of it as embedding qualitative data within a quantitative framework.  Explanatory Sequential Design: ❖In this design, researchers first collect and analyze quantitative data. ❖Then, based on the quantitative findings, they collect qualitative data to explain or elaborate on the initial results. ❖It’s a sequential approach where qualitative data follow quantitative data. Exploratory Sequential Design: ❖Here, researchers start with qualitative data collection and analysis. ❖The qualitative findings guide subsequent quantitative data collection. ❖It’s a sequential approach where quantitative data follow qualitative data.  Literature review ❖The literature review is meant to identify a ‘gap’ in research, i.e. a specific area which remains uncovered by previously published studies which your research intends to fill. ❖It is an overview of previous studies, i.e. what has been done before by summarising published articles, synthesizing them and offering a critique i.e. strengths and weaknesses. ❖The debates and controversies around your topic must be brought into clear focus. ❖ You need to clarify in which way your research is similar to which publications and in which way it differs from which publications.  Reviewing literature ❖It helps you to broaden your knowledge and understanding of the problem you wish to investigate as well as the theories relevant for your topic. ❖Look for information in books, journals, and electronic resources  Homework ❖Find a literature review section of a journal article in your area of study and read it closely to see how scholars carry out literature review in your area. Note and report to class the important things such as: ❖ Length of the literature review. ❖ Number of sources referred to inside the review. ❖ Arguments presented. ❖ What is the ‘gap’ identified/ discussed and how is it done? Presentation and data analysis  Narrative presentation ❖A data narrative is essentially a written summary of a set of data that draws conclusions and makes comparisons to explain the meaning of the data in detail. ❖ A well-designed data narrative can help others see important trends, comparisons, and differences in your data as well as the relevance and importance of the data to your topic.  Example Figure 1 shows social and emotional development data for the 145 children, birth to five, in the Williamsburg program who were enrolled as of September 15, 2017. Data on children's development were collected using ongoing child assessment tools during the first two weeks of the beginning of the program year. Of the 145 children, 36 (25 percent ) were less than 36 months old, 52 (36 percent) were three years old, and 57 children (39 percent) were four years old. Thirty-seven percent of the children were new to the program and 63 percent of the children had been enrolled in the program for at least one year.  Graphical presentation ❖Graphical Representation is a way of analysing numerical data. It exhibits the relation between data, ideas, information and concepts in a diagram. ❖It is easy to understand and it is one of the most important learning strategies. ❖It always depends on the type of information in a particular domain.  Types of graphical representation ❖Line Graphs – Line graph or the linear graph is used to display the continuous data and it is useful for predicting future events over time. ❖Bar Graphs – Bar Graph is used to display the category of data and it compares the data using solid bars to represent the quantities. ❖Histograms – The graph that uses bars to represent the frequency of numerical data that are organised into intervals. Since all the intervals are equal and continuous, all the bars have the same width. ❖Line Plot – It shows the frequency of data on a given number line. ‘ x ‘ is placed above a number line each time when that data occurs again. ❖whisker show the range (spread) and the middle ( median) of the data. ❖Frequency Table – The table shows the number of pieces of data that falls within the given interval. ❖Circle Graph – Also known as the pie chart that shows the relationships of the parts of the whole. The circle is considered with 100% and the categories occupied is represented with that specific percentage like 15%, 56%, etc. ❖Stem and Leaf Plot – In the stem and leaf plot, the data are organised from least value to the greatest value. The digits of the least place values from the leaves and the next place value digit forms the stems. ❖Box and Whisker Plot – The plot diagram summarises the data by dividing into four parts. Referencing 1. World Health Organisation. WHO Director-General’s Opening Remarks at the Media Briefing on COVID-19-11 March 2020. World Health Organization; Geneva, Switzerland: 2020 2. Chavez S., Long B., Koyfman A., Liang S.Y. Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19): A primer for emergency physicians. American Journal of Emerging Medicine 2021; 44,3:220-229. doi: 10.1016/jajem.2020.03.036. 3. Counted V., Parament K.I., Bechara A.O., Joynt S., Cowden R.G. Hope and well- being in vulnerable contexts during the COVID-19 pandemic: Does religious coping matter? Journal of Positive Psychology, 2022;17:70-81. doi: 10.1080/17439760.2020.1832247. The End