Neuroscience Exam Study Guide PDF

Memory 1.​ What did Lashley do in his search for the engram? What did he find? What were the limitations of his experiment? Lashley trained rats to navigate mazes and systematically removed parts of their cerebral cortex to locate the memory storage area. He found that memory is distri...

Memory 1.​ What did Lashley do in his search for the engram? What did he find? What were the limitations of his experiment? Lashley trained rats to navigate mazes and systematically removed parts of their cerebral cortex to locate the memory storage area. He found that memory is distributed across the brain rather than localized in a single area. Limitations of his experiment included reliance on behavioral observation and not focusing on specific neural circuits. 2.​ What brain area is proposed to hold the engram of the classically conditioned eyeblink response? The cerebellum, specifically the interpositus nucleus, is proposed to hold this engram. Baddeley’s Model 3.​ What aspect of memory does this model address? It addresses working memory, which involves temporarily holding and manipulating information. 4.​ What are its systems? The systems are the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, central executive, and episodic buffer. 5.​ What are the neural correlates of its systems? ​ Phonological loop: Left temporal and parietal lobes. ​ Visuospatial sketchpad: Occipital and parietal lobes. ​ Central executive: Prefrontal cortex. Basal Ganglia 6.​ What role does the basal ganglia play in memory? It plays a role in procedural memory and habit learning. 7.​ How does dopamine contribute to this role? Dopamine regulates basal ganglia circuits and reinforces learning by signaling reward prediction errors. The Case of Patient H.M.  8.​ What part of his brain was surgically removed? Portions of the medial temporal lobes, including the hippocampus. 9.​ What aspects of his memory were specifically impaired? He had severe anterograde amnesia, or the inability to form new declarative memories. 10.​ What aspects of his memory were still intact? His procedural memory and long-term memories from before the surgery were intact. 11.​ What does this tell us about memory? Memory systems are not unitary; the hippocampus is essential for forming new declarative memories but not for procedural ones. Long Term Potentiation (LTP) 12.​ What events are necessary for it to occur? Persistent, strong synaptic stimulation. 13.​ How do AMPA and NMDA receptors contribute to LTP? AMPA allows sodium influx, while NMDA allows calcium influx after depolarization removes the magnesium block. 14.​ How is calcium involved? Calcium triggers intracellular signaling cascades that strengthen synaptic connections. 15.​ What are the results on LTP? How does the synapse change? Synapses strengthen, with increased dendritic spines and AMPA receptors. Consolidation 16.​ What is the standard model of consolidation? Memories are initially stored in the hippocampus and gradually transferred to the cortex. 17.​ What is reconsolidation? Reactivated memories become malleable and can be updated or altered. Spatial Navigation  18.​ What role does the hippocampus play in spatial navigation? It forms cognitive maps and supports spatial memory. 19.​ What is the Morris Water Maze? How is it used in research? What insights into spatial navigation has research with the Morris Water Maze provided? It is a test where rodents find a submerged platform in a pool. It demonstrates the hippocampus’s critical role in spatial learning and navigation. Genetics 20.​ What is a gene? A gene is a unit of hereditary information made of DNA. 21.​ What is epigenetics? It is the study of changes in gene expression caused by environmental factors without altering the DNA sequence. 22.​ How can we study the factors of nature and nurture in predicting human behavior? Twin and adoption studies help isolate genetic and environmental influences. Evolution 23.​ How does natural selection occur? Traits that improve survival and reproduction become more common over generations. 24.​ Are humans still evolving? Does evolution necessarily mean improvement? Yes, humans are still evolving. Evolution means adaptation, not necessarily improvement. 25.​ What is Lamarckian evolution? Is it supported scientifically? Lamarckian evolution suggests acquired traits are inherited, which is not supported scientifically. Developmental 26.​ How many neurons does a newborn have compared to adults? Newborns have more neurons, but adults have more refined synaptic connections. 27.​ How do axons find their destinations in the developing brain? Guided by chemical signals such as growth factors and cell adhesion molecules. Plasticity 28.​ What do studies examining the brains of musicians vs. non-musicians tell us about plasticity? Musicians show increased cortical representation in skill-related areas. 29.​ How can the dendrites of neurons change as a result of learning? Dendrites grow new spines and strengthen synaptic connections. 30.​ What is phantom limb pain? What is its cause? Phantom limb pain arises from cortical reorganization after limb loss. Recovery 31.​ What is neurogenesis? Where has it been observed to occur? Neurogenesis is the formation of new neurons, observed in the hippocampus and olfactory bulb. 32.​ To what extent can axons regrow in the CNS? What role do astrocytes play? Axon regrowth in the CNS is limited due to astrocytes forming inhibitory glial scars. Hemispheric Differences 33.​ What are some anatomical and functional differences between the two hemispheres? ​ Left hemisphere specializes in language, logical reasoning, and analytic tasks. ​ Right hemisphere excels in spatial abilities, facial recognition, and interpreting emotion. 34.​ What is the interpreter? In which hemisphere is it proposed to exist? The interpreter is a proposed function of the left hemisphere that creates coherent narratives from incoming information. Language 35.​ How do the left and right hemispheres differ in terms of language? The left hemisphere processes grammar and syntax, while the right hemisphere interprets prosody and emotional tone.  36.​ Where is Broca’s area? What deficits are associated with Broca’s aphasia? Broca’s area is in the left frontal lobe. Damage causes Broca’s aphasia, resulting in difficulty producing speech but retaining comprehension. 37.​ Where is Wernicke’s area? What deficits are associated with Wernicke’s aphasia? Wernicke’s area is in the left temporal lobe. Damage leads to Wernicke’s aphasia, impairing language comprehension and resulting in fluent but nonsensical speech. 38.​ Where is the visual word form area? What functions are correlated with this area? It is in the left occipitotemporal region and is associated with recognizing written words. 39.​ What is the difference between phonological (dysphonetic) dyslexia and surface (dyseidetic) dyslexia? ​ Phonological dyslexia: Difficulty sounding out words. ​ Surface dyslexia: Difficulty recognizing words by sight. Affective Disorders 40.​ What brain area is implicated in depression? Is it overactive or underactive? The prefrontal cortex and hippocampus are underactive in depression. 41.​ What is some support for the monoamine hypothesis for depression? Depression is associated with reduced levels of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine, and antidepressants increase these levels. 42.​ What are some problems with the monoamine hypothesis for depression? It does not explain why antidepressants take weeks to show effects despite increasing monoamine levels quickly. 43.​ How is neurogenesis relevant to depression? Neurogenesis in the hippocampus may underlie the delayed therapeutic effects of antidepressants. 44.​ What is the mechanism by which ketamine can help with depression? Ketamine increases glutamate activity, promoting rapid synaptic strengthening and neurogenesis.  45.​ What is electroconvulsive therapy? What are its side effects? ECT induces seizures to treat severe depression. Side effects include memory loss and confusion. 46.​ What is seasonal affective disorder? What seems to be its cause? What are some treatments? Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is linked to reduced light exposure during winter. Treatments include light therapy, antidepressants, and cognitive-behavioral therapy. 47.​ What is a treatment for bipolar disorder? Lithium is a common treatment for stabilizing mood in bipolar disorder. Schizophrenia 48.​ Discuss the positive, negative, and cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia. ​ Positive symptoms: Hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking. ​ Negative symptoms: Apathy, lack of emotion, social withdrawal. ​ Cognitive symptoms: Impaired memory, attention, and executive functioning. 49.​ What evidence suggests a possible exposure to viruses in utero may be a risk factor in schizophrenia? Epidemiological studies show a higher risk of schizophrenia in individuals exposed to viruses during prenatal development, especially during the second trimester. 50.​ What is the dopamine hypothesis for schizophrenia? Which of the above symptoms does it explain? How is it incomplete? The hypothesis suggests overactive dopamine causes positive symptoms (e.g., hallucinations). It is incomplete as it does not fully explain negative or cognitive symptoms. 51.​ What are some side effects of dopamine antagonists? Side effects include motor dysfunctions such as tardive dyskinesia. 52.​ What type of dysfunction to the PFC may be involved in schizophrenia? How might this link to the dopamine hypothesis? Hypofrontality (reduced PFC activity) contributes to cognitive symptoms and may be linked to dopamine imbalances.  53.​ Why would an indirect NMDA agonist be safer than a direct NMDA agonist as a medication for schizophrenia? Indirect agonists reduce the risk of excitotoxicity, which can occur with direct NMDA stimulation. 54.​ How do atypical antipsychotic medications differ from traditional antipsychotic medications? Atypical antipsychotics target both dopamine and serotonin, reducing positive and negative symptoms with fewer motor side effects. Autism 55.​ What are the symptoms of autism? Impaired social communication, repetitive behaviors, and restricted interests. 56.​ How does brain development in autistic children differ from non-autistic children? Autistic children exhibit early brain overgrowth followed by slowed or abnormal development. 57.​ What role does the fusiform face area and temporal parietal junction play in autism? The fusiform face area shows reduced activation during face recognition, and the temporal parietal junction is less active in processing others’ perspectives.