Neuman Chapter 1: Why Do Research? PDF

Why Do Research? Alternatives to Social Science Research Steps in the Research Process What Research Involves—A Scientific Why Learn How to Conduct Social Approach Research? Varieties of Social Re...

Why Do Research? Alternatives to Social Science Research Steps in the Research Process What Research Involves—A Scientific Why Learn How to Conduct Social Approach Research? Varieties of Social Research Conclusion The sociologist, then, is someone concerned with understanding society in a disciplined way. The nature of this discipline is scientific. This means that what the sociologist finds and says about the social phenomena he studies occurs within a certain rather strictly defined frame of reference. —Peter Berger, An Invitation to Sociology, p. 16 I wrote this text to help you learn about how social ers, managers, administrators, officials, service scientists do research and so you can conduct your providers, health care professionals, and others use own studies. I consider two main issues in this chap- its findings and principles. They use them to raise ter: why you should learn about doing social re- children, reduce crime, manage health concerns, search and the basics of what social science research sell products or services, digest news events, and so is all about. forth. There is little doubt about the importance and Social science research is pervasive, and it af- centrality of social science research. Despite scat- fects your daily life as well as that of your family, tered criticism to the contrary, research is highly rel- friends, neighbors, and co-workers. Findings from evant for understanding social life generally and to social science studies appear on broadcast news pro- the decisions you make each day. grams, in magazines and newspapers, and on many To see the practical relevance of social research, Web sites and blogs. They cover dozens of topics let us consider a couple raising a three-year-old and fields: law and public safety, schooling, health child. One study (Wrigley and Derby, 2005) found care, personal and family relations, political issues, that paid child care is quite safe but also discovered and business activities as well as international and striking differences in fatality rates across various social trends. We use the knowledge and principles types of care. Center-based care is far safer than of social science research, directly or indirectly, as care provided in private homes. Another study we engage in relationships with family, friends, and (Bridges et al., 2007) showed that center-based co-workers, participate in community life or public care significantly raises a child’s reading and policy, and make daily decisions in business, pro- math scores, but it has a negative effect on socio- fessional life, and health care. Social research is not behavioral measures (e.g., the child exhibits less just for college classrooms and professors; high cooperation, more aggression). Children who start school teachers, parents, business owners, advertis- at ages two to three get the largest benefit rather From Chapter 1 of Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 7/e. W. Lawrence Neuman. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education. Published by Allyn & Bacon. All rights reserved. 1  WHY DO RESEARCH? than younger or older children. Active parental Reading and doing social research can be ex- involvement with a child lessens any negative be- citing: It is a process of discovery in which we learn havioral consequences from child care. Another many new things. Doing social science research re- study (Love et al., 2003) showed that child care quires persistence, personal integrity, tolerance for centers vary widely in quality. Quality of care ambiguity, interaction with others, and pride in makes a bigger difference than amount of time in doing top-quality work. It also requires logical care or whether parents or a care center is provid- thinking, carefully following rules, and repeating ing the care. Another study (Sosinsky, Lord, and steps over and again. In the research process, we Zigler, 2007) learned that care center quality was join theories or ideas with facts in a systematic way. generally higher in nonprofit, nonreligiously affil- We also use our creativity. To conduct a study, we iated centers than other types. Based on these find- must organize and plan. We need to select research ings, a couple may decide to look for a specific type methods appropriate to a specific question. We must of child care center, devote time to checking into always treat the study participants in an ethical or the quality of care it offers, and make special ef- moral way. In addition, we need to communicate to forts to encourage their child’s social skill devel- others how we conducted a study and what we opment. The studies are not only relevant for learned from it. specific parents but also have implications for pub- In this chapter, we consider some alternatives lic policy and how a community addresses child to social science research and why research is pre- care issues. ferred. We next examine how the enterprise of sci- Social science research yields valuable infor- entific research works, including the steps in doing mation and expands our understanding, but it is not a research study and types of social science studies. 100 percent foolproof. It does not guarantee perfect results every time or offer “absolute truth.” This may be why some people distrust research-based knowl- ALTERNATIVES TO SOCIAL edge or why some people, including a few media SCI ENCE RES EARCH commentators, even ridicule professional re- In this section, we look at four commonly used searchers and study results. Despite some derision, alternatives to social science research that many in a head-to-head comparison with the alternative people rely on to acquire knowledge and make ways we can learn about the world and make deci- decisions: sions, research readily wins hands-down. This is why professionals, educated people, and respon- Personal experience and common sense sible leaders consistently turn to the methods, prin- Experts and authorities ciples, and findings of social research when they Popular and media messages want to learn more or make important decisions. Ideological beliefs and values This text considers both the methodology and methods of social science research. The terms may Knowledge from Personal Experience seem to be synonyms, but methodology is broader and Common Sense and envelops methods. Methodology means under- standing the entire research process—including its If something happens to us, if we personally see it social-organizational context, philosophical as- or experience it, we probably accept it as true. Per- sumptions, ethical principles, and the political im- sonal experience or “seeing is believing” is a pow- pact of new knowledge from the research enterprise. erful type of knowledge. Unfortunately, it can also Methods refer to the collection of specific tech- lead us astray. Something similar to an optical illu- niques we use in a study to select cases, measure sion or mirage can occur. What appears to be true and observe social life, gather and refine data, ana- actually is due to an illusion, yet the power of im- lyze data, and report on results. The two are closely mediacy and direct personal contact is so strong that linked and interdependent. we easily fall for illusions without even realizing it. 2  WHY DO RESEARCH? This is why many people insist on believing what they personally experience rather than what they EXPANSION BOX 1 What We Think We Will Do and learn by reading a carefully conducted research What We Actually Do study that was designed to avoid the errors of per- sonal experience. This is especially true when re- Social scientists note a paradox: Most people search studies contradict what personal experience strongly condemn overt racism, yet acts of blatant or common sense tell us. Moreover, errors of per- racism still occur. To examine this, Kawakami and as- sonal experience reinforce each other. A few people sociates (2009) conducted an experiment. They even purposely use the distortions of personal ex- thought perhaps people inaccurately estimate what perience to mislead others through propaganda, they would feel and do if they were to witness cons or fraud, magic tricks, political manipulation, racism. To examine this, they asked non-Black stu- and advertising gimmicks. dents how they would feel and what they thought Entire subfields of research are devoted to un- they would do if a racist act occurred. Most predicted covering the ways we misjudge, over- or underesti- that they would be very upset. However, when the mate, and make mistakes. Here is an example: researchers staged a racist act in front of them, most of the students showed little distress. Most said they Women tend to stick with skin creams that do not would avoid a person who made a crude racist com- work. Moreover, the less effective a beauty product ment, but again what people said did not match their or treatment, the more likely they will keep using it. actual behavior. Study results suggest that one rea- These are the findings of a study of 300 women, son racism continues is that many people who be- ages 27 to 65, who were trying to achieve a more lieve they would feel upset or take action actually youthful appearance by using creams, vitamins, and respond with indifference when an act of racism other beauty treatments. The findings were not what actually occurs. Apparently, we are not good at we might expect: The women were most loyal to predicting how we will act in real situations when products and treatments when they didn’t work! they happen. Among women who felt that the treatments were not working, 27 percent stopped using them. Among women who felt the treatments were suc- cessful, 55 percent stopped using them. The re- decreases violent crimes—yet numerous studies searchers think the women keep doing something suggest that both of these beliefs are false. Most that did not work because when people don’t feel people think an eyewitness account of a crime is good about themselves, fear is a more powerful mo- ideal, but studies show they are highly inaccurate. tivator than success. Fear about looking older Many of us worry about tragic accidents and horrific spurred the women to keep trying even when prod- events, such as a plane crash or a school shooting. ucts don’t work.1 However, we tend to worry about the “wrong” While studies that uncover our tendency to mis- things because our estimates of something happen- judge are fun to read, they point to a general prin- ing are far from actual probabilities based on care- ciple: Everyday reasoning and perceptions are ful studies. Likewise, we can be misled by surface imperfect and subject to error. More significantly, we appearances. Many people purchased a large, rarely notice or catch such errors right away if at all. powerful-looking SUV for its safety at a time when Knowledge from personal experience, com- crash tests and accident records showed SUVs to be mon sense “facts,” and reasoning might be correct, less safe than many meeker looking cars.2 but they can lead us astray (see Expansion Box 1, Erroneous “common sense” misperceptions What We Think We Will Do and What We Actually have real consequences. Moreover, the media often Do). For example, common sense says that distrib- repeat and spread the misperceptions, schools or uting free condoms in high schools will encourage businesses make decisions based on them, and law- teens to engage in sexual activity or that impos- makers and politicians advance new laws or poli- ing harsh punishment, such as the death penalty, cies founded on them. We often make the following 3  WHY DO RESEARCH? five errors in our everyday decisions, but the re- evidence that confirms what we already believe. search process tries to reduce such errors. At the same time, most of us tend to overlook the entire range of cases. We often dismiss contradic- Overgeneralization tory information as being an exception we can ig- Selective observation nore. For example, I believe people who are Premature closure overweight are more outgoing and friendly than Halo effect thin people. My belief comes from stereotypes False consensus learned from my parents and media sources. I ob- 1. Overgeneralization occurs when we have serve people who are overweight and, without some believable evidence and then assume that it being aware, pay more attention to their smiling, applies to many other situations as well. Note the laughing, and so on. I notice thin people more word “over.” Generalization can be appropriate but when they are looking serious, distracted, or angry. it is limited. We can generalize a small amount of Without realizing it, I notice people and situations evidence to a broader situation but only if we do so that reinforce my preconceived way of thinking. with great care. Unfortunately, many of us tend to Studies also document our tendency to “seek out” generalize far beyond what is acceptable with lim- and distort memories to make them more consis- ited evidence. We often generalize from what we tent with what we already think. know to unknown areas. For example, over the 3. Premature closure operates with and in- years, I have personally known five people who are forces the first two errors. It occurs when we feel blind. All of them were very outgoing and friendly. we have the answer and no longer need to listen, Can I conclude that all people who are blind are seek information, or raise questions. For practical friendly? Do the five people with whom I had per- purposes, at some point, we need to stop gathering sonal experience fully represent all people on the information and come to a decision. Unfortunately, planet who are blind? most of us are a little lazy or get a little sloppy. We 2. Selective observation is slightly different gather a small amount of evidence or look at events than overgeneralization. It occurs when we take for a short time and then think we have it figured special notice of certain people or events and then out. We look for evidence to confirm or reject an generalize from them. Most often we focus on par- idea and stop after getting a small amount of evi- ticular cases or situations, especially when they fit dence and jump to conclusions. preconceived ideas. We also tend to seek out 4. The halo effect occurs when we overgen- eralize from what we believe to be highly positive or prestigious. We give a halo to, or a positive rep- utation to, things or people we respect. This halo Overgeneralization Statement that goes far beyond “rubs off” on other things or people about which what can be justified based on the data or empirical we know little. Thus, I pick up a report by a person observations that one has. from a prestigious university, say, Harvard or Cam- Selective observation Process of examination in a bridge University. I assume that the author is smart way that reinforces preexisting thinking rather than in and talented, and I expect the report to be excellent. a neutral and balanced manner. I do not make the same assumption about a report Premature closure Act of making a judgment or written by someone from Unknown University. I reaching a decision and ending an investigation before form an opinion in advance, and I do not approach gathering the amount or depth of evidence required each report on its own merits alone. Perhaps a by scientific standards. celebrity or person I trust endorses a product or Halo effect Occurrence that allows the prior reputa- political candidate about which I know little. I use tion of persons, places, or things to color one’s evalua- tions rather than evaluating all in a neutral, equal my positive feelings as a substitute for doing the manner. work of finding out for myself or as a shortcut when making decisions. 4  WHY DO RESEARCH? 5. False consensus is a psychological effect False consensus A tendency to project one’s way of documented by dozens of studies (Marks and thinking onto other people. In other words, the person Miller, 1987). It suggests that we are not good at assumes that everyone else thinks like he or she does. distinguishing between what we personally think and what we think most other people believe. In short, we tend to see the views of most other people with an impressive name, such as the Center for the as being similar to our own views. This is not a mat- Scientific Study of X. Some think tanks are legiti- ter of purposely conforming to and copying a mate research centers, but many are fronts for crowd perspective. Rather, most of us feel that our wealthy special-interest groups who want to engage own views are “normal” or “ordinary” in compar- in advocacy politics. No regulations control the titles ison with others. While this might be true, we of think tanks, and anyone can become a “scholar” in greatly overestimate how much our views match the group. Think tanks enable an “expert” to make those of other people. In terms of social events and authoritative statements to the mass media, giving the issues, studies suggest that most of us are not very impression of being neutral and knowledgeable. good at judging the thoughts of people around us. Such people may lack real expertise and make state- Social research helps address the errors of per- ments based on opinion or ideology, not on research.3 sonal experience. Research standards, rules, and Later in this chapter, you will read about how the sci- principles are designed to reduce the misjudgment, entific community operates and how it determines bias, and distorted thinking that frequently occurs who is a genuine expert. with personal experience. Even if we locate legitimate experts in a specific field, they may disagree. Perhaps you have heard the Knowledge from Experts and Authorities dozens of contradictory and confusing research- based recommendations about health and diet. You Most of what we know probably comes from our might ask what is so great about research if there is parents, teachers, and experts as well as from books, so much disagreement. This situation happens be- film, television, the Internet, and other media. Often cause much of what fills the mass media using the we accept something as being true because someone words “research” or “scientific” does not involve sci- with expertise or in a position of authority says it is so entific research. Unfortunately, the media often use or because it appears in an authoritative, trusted “research” when technically no real research backs a source. This is using authority as a basis of knowl- statement. Nonetheless, scientists or experts do not edge. In many ways, relying on the wisdom of experts agree 100 percent of the time. In many areas—the and authorities is a quick, simple, and inexpensive best diet, health practice, public policy, or climate way to learn something. An expert may spend a great change—there is some disagreement. Later in this amount of time to learn something, and we can ben- chapter, you will read about the principles of science efit from that person’s experience and efforts. and the operation of the scientific community and see Relying on experts has limitations, and it is easy how disagreement arises and is resolved as part of the to overestimate someone’s expertise. Authorities may process of scientific research. speak on fields they know little about; they can be More than finding an expert, it is important for plain wrong. Someone with expertise in one area may us to learn how to think independently and evaluate extend his or her real authority to an unrelated area. research on our own. Always relying on experts and Using the halo effect, an expert on one area may ille- authorities is not consistent with the principles of a gitimately act as an authority in a different area. Have free, democratic society. Experts might promote you ever seen commercials in which a movie star or ideas that strengthen their power and position. We football hero tries to convince you to buy a product? lose the ability to decide for ourselves if we follow Who decides who is or is not a genuine expert only the authorities. This is a reason to learn about or authority? A person might become a “senior fel- research and acquire the skills so we can evaluate low” or “adjunct scholar” in a private “think tank” strong from weak studies. 5  WHY DO RESEARCH? Knowledge Based on Popular media can distort social issues. The media tend to and Media Messages perpetuate the cultural myths or create “hype” that a serious social problem exists when it may not. We Beyond relying on common sense, personal expe- may hear of a terrible problem in the mass media, rience, and experts, we may try to extend our knowl- but with closer inspection and a little research, we edge by talking to others and picking up what we may learn that it was seriously overstated. can from the media. This is a good idea, but it has serious limitations. Talking to others may be help- ful, but studies have found that most people are Road Rage Example weak with regard to scientific literacy, geographic Americans hear a lot about road rage. Newsweek knowledge, and clear, logical thinking. This is true magazine, Time magazine, and newspapers in most even in a rich, advanced, and educated country like major cities have carried headlines about it. Lead- the United States in the twenty-first century. (See ing national political officials have held public hear- Expansion 2, Scientific Literacy Discussion later in ings on it, and the federal government gives millions this chapter.) Our ability to use advanced technol- of dollars in grants to law enforcement and trans- ogy (an iPhone, geographic positioning system, or portation departments to reduce it. A California psy- car with advanced equipment) does not mean we chologist now specializes in this disorder and has generally think in a rational, scientific way. A 2006 appeared on several major television programs to survey of young men and women ages 18–24 found discuss it. about half could not locate the states of New York The term “road rage” first appeared in 1988, or Ohio on a U.S. map (50% and 43%, respectively) and by 1997, the print media were carrying more and a majority (63%) could not find Iraq on a map than 4,000 articles per year on it. Despite media at- of the Middle East despite nearly constant news tention about “aggressive driving” and “anger be- coverage since the U.S. invasion in March 2003. hind the wheel,” there is no scientific evidence Large proportions of the U.S. population believe in concerning road rage. The term is not precisely de- phenomena that science rejects, such as UFOs fined and can refer to anything from gunshots from (34%), horoscopes and astrology (31%), ghosts and cars, use of hand gestures, running bicyclists off the goblins (51%), witches (34%), or a devil (61%).4 road, tailgating, and even anger over auto repair Average levels of formal schooling have risen, bills! All of the data on crashes and accidents show but many people lack factual knowledge, rely on in- declines during the period when road rage reached accurate information, or cling to nonlogical think- an epidemic. ing. Some people go through schooling but learned What instead happened was that media reports little or do not continue to apply the knowledge, fueled perceptions of road rage. After hearing or skills, or thinking they acquired in their school years reading about road rage and having a label for the later in their daily life or in job decisions. Also, many behavior, people started to notice rude driving be- people “follow the herd,” or rely on mass opinion. havior and engaged in selective observation. We will The mass media often echoes mass opinion without not know for sure until it is properly studied, but the serious evaluation. As you know well, just because amount of such behavior appears not to have most people believe something is true does not make changed. It may turn out that the national epidemic it true. However, many of us just follow “what most of road rage is a widely held myth stimulated by re- other people think” even thought it might be wrong. ports in the mass media. Many of us rely on the mass media (i.e., film, television, newspapers, magazines, and Internet Holiday Havoc Example sources) for information. Unfortunately, the media tend to jumble together different types of Newspapers and television reports are filled with dire statements—ones that are based on sound research warnings about the many traffic accidents that and ones without real backing. In addition, the occur on holidays. Thus, the Fourth of July weekend 6  WHY DO RESEARCH? holiday in the United States is presented as very In addition to informing and entertaining us, deadly with an average of 161 people killed each the media provide a forum in which competing in- year, yet the holiday period may be no more danger- terests try to win over public support. Those for or ous than other times and may even be a bit safer! How against a cause will mount public relations cam- can this be? After a careful comparison with other paigns and use the media to shape public thinking. weekends and accounting for the extra amount of As mentioned earlier, advocacy think tanks some- driving, the holiday’s accident rate is not very differ- times have false “experts” to discuss topics in the ent. Safety advocates publicize and distort statistical media. Also, in recent years, the number of video information in the media to encourage people to drive news releases (VNR), also called “fake TV news,” more safely. has grown dramatically. A VNR is the result of a major company or advocacy group that pays to cre- Lesson ate sophisticated video that looks just like an inde- pendently produced news report. In a VNR, an actor Road rage and holiday havoc are hardly unique sit- or actress plays an independent reporter. The “re- uations; misrepresentation happens with many so- porter” presents what appears to be neutral infor- cial issues. “Problem promoters,” especially in the mation or news. In reality, it is a public relations or broadcast media, highlight dramatic cases or selec- a promotional statement. Most TV stations show the tively use statistical information to generate atten- VNRs without informing viewers about the source. tion and agitate the public about a social problem. A news report on television might be a type of so- The media reports are not so much wrong as they are phisticated propaganda designed to influence our misleading. They are more effective for public per- views on a topic or product. We need to be careful suasion than is giving a carefully documented pres- before accepting the mass media as an authority.6 entation of the entire picture. If we rely on mass Many earnest science writers and serious jour- media reports to learn about the social world, major nalists try to deliver accurate research-based infor- trends, or serious problems, we can easily be mis- mation. However, they can be overshadowed by the led (Best, 2001; Fumento, 1998; and Wald, 2004). volume and prominence of other media messages. Studies have documented poverty, crime, and As you will see later in this chapter, the mass media many other concerns shown in film, on television, are not the best sources to learn about research stud- and in magazines do not accurately represent social ies. Instead, rely on the scientific community’s com- reality. The writers who create or “adapt” real life munication system that is available at no cost to for television shows and movie scripts often distort anyone with some knowledge of research and who reality. This is rarely done intentionally; rather, they devotes the time to explore it. repeat misinformation they have picked up, and their primary goal is to entertain. For example, about only 5 of 400 films that portray psychiatric Knowledge Subordinated to Ideological treatment do so accurately. Likewise, media reports Beliefs and Values on the size of the Muslim population in the United States are two to three times more than scientifically Despite the strength and availability of social sci- based estimates suggest. African Americans were ence research, some managers and decision makers 62 percent of all poor people shown in news- consciously reject it and instead promote and de- magazine photos and 65 percent on television news, fend actions based on their political, religious, or yet in the true racial mix of poor people, only 29 ideological beliefs. For example, in 2001, the U.S. percent are African Americans. What we see on tel- federal government began to fund “faith-based” so- evision or visually in photos strongly shapes our cial programs. Studies questioned the effectiveness views on social issues. Media distortions mean that of such programs, yet they replaced programs that if we rely on the media for knowledge of the social were supported by research. At the same time, world, we will often have inaccurate knowledge.5 knowledgeable scientists serving in government 7  WHY DO RESEARCH? TA B L E 1 Alternative Explanations to Social Research EXAMPLE ISSUE: WOMEN ARE MORE LIKELY THAN MEN TO DO LAUNDRY. Personal experience and common sense: In my experience, men just are not as concerned about clothing or appearance as much as women are, so it makes sense that women do the laundry. When my friends and I were growing up, my mother and their mothers did the laundry, and female friends did it for their boyfriends but never did the men do it. Experts and authority: Experts say that as children, females are taught to make, select, mend, and clean clothing as part of a female focus on physical appearance and on caring for children or others in a family. Women do the laundry based on their childhood preparation. Popular and media messages: Movies and television commercials show women often doing laundry and enjoying it, but men hate it and mess it up. So, women must be doing laundry because they enjoy it and are skilled at it. It is what we see everywhere and what everyone says. Ideological beliefs: The proper, natural place division of labor is for women to take charge of the home, caring for children and overseeing household duties, including cooking, cleaning, and doing the laundry. agencies were replaced by political appointees, per- next examine science in the context of doing social sons committed to certain ideologies. Respected re- science research. search findings that contradicted ideological views were removed from official health or environmen- tal public information.7 Science At one time, leading U.S. government officials When most people hear the word “science,” the first promoted antiscience beliefs. One top aide to Pres- image that comes to mind is likely to be a lab with ident George W. Bush claimed to reject “the reality- test tubes, electronic equipment and microscopes, based community,” defined as people who “believe exotic space ships, and people in white lab coats. that solutions emerge from your judicious study of These outward trappings are a part of science. The discernible reality” (Suskind, 2004). physical and biological sciences—biology, chem- For an example of how the alternatives would istry, physics, and zoology—deal with the physical explain an aspect of social life, see Table 1. and material world (e.g., rocks, plants, chemical compounds, stars, muscles, blood, electricity). These natural sciences are at the forefront of new WHAT RES EARCH I NVOLVES: technology and receive a great deal of publicity. A SCI ENTI FIC APPROACH Most people first think of them when they hear the Social science research is central in a “reality-based word “science.” community.” It relies on people carefully studying ex- The social-cultural sciences (such as anthro- periences, events, and facts in social reality. While so- pology, economics, human geography, psychology, cial research helps us answer questions about the political science, and sociology) involve the study social world, it also raises new questions and may of human social-cultural life: beliefs, behaviors, re- change how we look at the world as well. It relies on lationships, interactions, institutions, and so forth. the process and evidence of science as such, and it can Just as we apply knowledge from the physical and differ from casual observation, common sense rea- biological sciences in related, more pragmatic soning, and other ways to evaluate evidence, includ- fields (such as agriculture, aviation, engineering, ing pure logical-rational reasoning (mathematical or medicine, and pharmacology), we apply social sci- philosophical proof) or legal-judicial procedure. We ence knowledge to practical concerns in related 8  WHY DO RESEARCH? applied areas (such as counseling, criminal justice, the world; accumulated understandings; an orien- education, management, marketing, public admin- tation toward knowledge; and many specific proce- istration, public health, social work, and urban dures, techniques, and instruments. The system of planning). science is most tangible and visible as a social in- Some people call social sciences “soft sci- stitution, the scientific community (see discussion ences.” This is not because the fields lack rigor but of it later in this section). because their subject matter—human social life— The knowledge that science yields is organized is highly fluid, formidable to observe, and difficult into theories and grounded in empirical data. Let us to measure precisely. The subject matter of a sci- examine three key terms: theory, data, and empirical. ence (e.g., human attitudes, protoplasm, or galax- Many people confuse theory with opinion, unfounded ies) shapes the techniques and instruments (e.g., belief, or wild guess. “Whereas a scientist under- surveys, microscopes, or telescopes) it uses. stands theory to be a well-grounded opinion... the Science is a human invention. Today’s science general public understands it as ‘just a theory,’ no emerged out of a major shift in thinking nearly 400 more valid than any other opinion on the matter” years ago. It began with the Age of Reason or En- (Yankelovich, 2003:8). For now, we can define lightenment period in western European history social theory as a coherent system of logically con- (1600s–1700s). The Enlightenment Era ushered in sistent and interconnected ideas used to condense new thinking that included logical reasoning, care- and organize knowledge. You can think of theory as ful observations of the material world, a belief in a map that helps us better visualize the complexity human progress, and a questioning of traditional re- in the world, see connections, and explain why ligious and political doctrines. It built on past things happen. We use data to determine whether a knowledge and started by studying the natural theory is true and we should retain it or is false and world. Later it spread to the study of the social needs adjustments or can be discarded. Data are the world. A dramatic societal transformation, the In- forms of empirical evidence or information carefully dustrial Revolution, spread scientific thinking. The collected according to the rules or procedures of sci- advancement of science and related applied fields ence. Empirical refers to evidence or observations did not just happen on its own—it was punctuated grounded in human sensory experience: touch, sight, by the triumphs and struggles of individual re- hearing, smell, and taste. Scientific researchers can- searchers. It was also influenced by significant so- not use their senses to observe directly some aspects cial events, such as war, economic depression, of the world (e.g., intelligence, attitudes, opinions, government policies, and shifts in public support. emotions, power, authority, quarks, black holes of Before scientific reasoning grew and became space, force fields, gravity). However, they have widespread, people relied on nonscientific methods. These included the alternatives discussed previ- ously as well as other methods less accepted today Social theory A system of interconnected ideas that (e.g., oracles, mysticism, magic, astrology, and spir- condenses and organizes the knowledge about the so- its). Such systems continue to exist, but science is cial world and explains how it works. now generally accepted. We still use nonscientific Data Numerical (quantitative) and non-numerical methods to study topics defined as outside the scope (qualitative) information and evidence that have been of science (e.g., religion, art, literary forms, and phi- carefully gathered according to rules or established procedures. losophy). Science refers to both a system for producing Empirical Description of what we can observe and experience directly through human senses (e.g., touch, knowledge and the knowledge that results from that sight, hearing, smell, taste) or indirectly using tech- system. Science evolved over centuries and contin- niques that extend the senses. ues to slowly evolve. It combines assumptions about 9  WHY DO RESEARCH? created specialized instruments and techniques to to a nonspecialist but actually present a distorted observe and measure such aspects indirectly. picture or a misuse of social science. These authors Data or empirical observations can be write the books to promote a particular political or quantitative (i.e., expressed precisely as numbers) social position in the guise of social science, but or qualitative (i.e., expressed as words, images, or they do not meet the standards of scientific com- objects). Later, you will see how we can measure munity. For example, the famous Hite Report on aspects of the social world to produce quantitative female sexuality was a seriously flawed study con- or qualitative data. ducted by a nonscientist who seriously distorted actual social relations. Despite its weaknesses, the book became a best seller that was widely discussed Pseudoscience, Junk Science, on television talk shows and in newspapers. The and “Real” Science same is true of the book The Bell Curve that made Across the centuries, science achieved broad respect claims of African American intellectual inferiority.8 and acceptance around the globe; however, many Unfortunately, books advertised on television or people still lack scientific literacy (See Expansion radio, cited in newspaper articles, or sold at a local Box 2, Scientific Literacy) or confuse real science bookstore can be filled with opinion, personal be- with pseudoscience. The prefix pseudo is Greek for liefs, or seriously flawed research. It is easy for an false or counterfeit. We face a barrage of pseudo- unwary consumer to be misled and confuse such in- science through television, magazines, film, news- accurate or highly opinionated books with legiti- papers, highly advertised special seminars or mate social science. workshops, and the like. Some individuals weave Perhaps you have heard the term junk sci- the outward trappings of science (e.g., technical jar- ence. Public relations firms created this term in the gon, fancy-looking machines, complex formulas 1980s as a strategy to denigrate actual scientific and statistics, and white lab coats) with a few sci- evidence. They used the term to attack research entific facts and myths, fantasy, or hopes to claim a findings that were presented in courts to document “miracle cure,” “new wonder treatment,” “revolu- injury or abuses caused by powerful, large corpo- tionary learning program,” “evidence of alien visi- rations. In press releases and public statements, tors,” or “new age spiritual energy.” Experts in such firms manipulated language to contrast junk pseudoscience might hold an advanced academic with sound science (i.e., studies that supported degree, but often it is in unrelated academic fields their own position). Sound and junk are rhetorical or from a very weak, marginal school. and imprecise terms. More important, the quality, In addition to experts, magazines or books offer methodology, or precision of the research for each popularized or “pop” social science. Some of these may not differ in quality. Publicists applied the are accurate popularizations written by legitimate term “junk science” to any research study, no mat- social researchers to communicate to a wide public ter how accurate or rigorous, that they opposed and audience. Others look like legitimate social science “sound science” to any research study, no matter how flawed, that they used to challenge opponents. For example, the tobacco industry used junk sci- ence as a tactic to criticize research on secondhand Pseudoscience A body of ideas or information smoke and spent millions of dollars to deny the clothed in the jargon and outward appearance of sci- harmful health effects of smoking.9 The goal was ence that seeks to win acceptance but that was not cre- to confuse juries and the public and to create an ated with the systematic rigor or standards required of the scientific method. impression that the scientists lacked consistent re- search evidence. In contrast to pseudo- or junk sci- Junk science A public relations term used to criticize scientific research even if it is conducted properly that ence, authentic science comes from the outlook, produces findings that an advocacy group opposes. operations, and products of the scientific commu- nity (see the next section). 10  WHY DO RESEARCH? EXPANSION BOX 2 Scientific Literacy For more than 50 years, leading educators, business However, people can use modern technology (com- leaders, and policy makers stressed the need for quan- puters, cell phones, iPods, airplanes, and the like) and titative and scientific literacy to perform professional retain prescientific thinking or rely on magic or su- work and make good everyday decisions in a complex pernatural beliefs to explain events make decisions. world. Quantitative literacy, or numeracy, is the abil- An ability to use advanced technology does not ity to reason with numbers and other mathematical mean a person thinks in a rational, scientific way. concepts. A person with quantitative literacy can think Only 25–28 percent of American adults qualify in quantitative-spatial terms and apply such thinking as scientifically literate. Overall, adults in other ad- to solve problems. They understand how data are vanced countries are at about the same general sci- gathered by counting and measuring and presented entific literacy. However, international math and in graphs, diagrams, charts, and tables. A lack of quan- science tests for high school students regularly show titative literacy is called innumeracy (Paulson, 1990). that United States ranks about twentieth among Scientific literacy is the capacity to understand sci- other nations. A cross-national study of the United entific knowledge; apply scientific concepts, principles, States and nine European nations in 2002–2003 con- and theories; use scientific processes to solve problems firmed that American adults are near the bottom in and make decisions; and interact in a way that reflects endorsing the theory of evolution compared to other core scientific values (Laugksch, 2000:76). The Pro- all other advanced nations: only 32 percent in 2009. gramme for International Student Assessment (PISA) A June 2007 USA Today/Gallup Poll found that 37 of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and percent of Americans rejected the scientific theory of Development (OECD) carries out international studies evolution and 56 percent favored a religious expla- of how much students know about science and de- nation instead. A March 2007 poll found that 39 per- fines scientific literacy as the following (PISA, 2006:23): cent said something completely opposite from the opinion of the world scientific community: that sci- Scientific knowledge and use of that knowledge to entific evidence does not support evolution. A Pew identify questions, acquire new knowledge, explain Research Center for the People poll in 2006 found scientific phenomena, and draw evidence-based con- more than one-half of Americans said schools should clusions about science-related issues teach religious views on scientific issues in public Understanding of the characteristic features of sci- schools and that it should be nationally mandated. ence as a form of human knowledge and enquiry A Gallup Poll in 2006 found that over one-half believed Awareness of how science and technology shape our that humans did not evolve (Polling Report, 2007). material, intellectual, and cultural environments Scientists generally agree on global warming, and Willingness as a reflective citizen to engage in science- 84 percent say the earth is getting warmer because related issues and with the ideas of science of human activity such as burning fossil fuels, but People who lack quantitative and scientific liter- only 49 percent of the public agrees. Well over 90 acy easily accept pseudoscience and make judgment percent of scientists favor the use of animals in re- errors. Innumeracy also leads journalists to report in- search and stem cell research compared with slightly accurate news and to readers/viewers lacking suffi- cient skepticism to evaluate the reports. Innumerate people make poor financial investment decisions and Innumeracy The lack of quantitative literacy; not often lose money on gambling and related activities having an ability to reason with numbers and other because they do not understand basic math con- mathematical concepts. cepts. People who lack these types of literacy are poor Scientific literacy The capacity to understand and at assessing risk. Their prospects for a career as a apply scientific knowledge, concepts, principles, and technical-managerial professional, the fast growing, theories to solve problems and make decisions based high-income part of the labor market, are poor. on scientific reasoning and to interact in a way that You may think that those people are not like you, reflects the core values of the scientific community. in a technologically advanced, ultra-modern society. (continued) 11  WHY DO RESEARCH? EXPANSION BOX 2 (continued) over half of the public (Pew Research Center for the century (“Scientific Savvy? In U.S., Not Much,” Dean, People and the Press, 2009). New York Times, August 30, 2005). You may think While evolution has been extremely politicized in college students know better. Studies found that the United States with some elected officials at- many college students used illogical “magic” rather tempting to impose religious beliefs as science in than science-based thinking. Large numbers of col- public schools, Americans also do poorly in terms of lege students accepted voodoo magical power as a general scientific-quantitative thinking and other sci- cause of someone becoming ill, and college sports entific concepts. Despite getting X-rays, only about 10 fans believed their thoughts could influence the out- percent of the U.S. public knows what radiation is and come of a basketball game as they watched it on tel- about 20 percent think the sun revolves around the evision (Pronin, Wegner, McCarthy, and Rodriguez, earth—an idea science abandoned in the seventeenth 2006). The Scientific Community their knowledge of science may not be as deep as those in the middle or core of the scientific com- The scientific community brings science to life; it munity. Also, those on the outer rings are usually sustains the assumptions, attitudes, and techniques less engaged in advancing the overall enterprise of of science. The scientific community is a social in- science (i.e., to generate significant new knowl- stitution of people, organizations, and roles as well edge). Nonetheless, everyone who uses scientific as a set of norms, behaviors, and attitudes that all methods and results of science, whether at the core, operate together. It is not a geographic community middle layer, or outer fringe, can benefit from an existing in one physical location nor does everyone understanding of how the scientific community know everyone else within it, although its members operates and its key principles. communicate and interact with one another fre- The boundaries and membership of the scien- quently. Rather, it is a loose collection of profes- tific community are fuzzy and defined loosely. sionals who share training, ethical principles, There is no membership card or master roster. In values, techniques, and career paths.10 some respects, a doctorate of philosophy (Ph.D.) The community is organized like a series of degree in a scientific field is an informal “member- concentric circles. Its rings or layers are based on ship ticket.” The Ph.D. is an advanced graduate de- the productivity and engagement of researchers. At gree beyond the master’s degree that prepares the core are a small number of highly productive, people to conduct independent research. A few very creative, and intense scientific leaders. They members of the scientific community lack a Ph.D. slowly move into and out of the core over time based and many people who earn Ph.D.s enter occupations on career stage and contributions to knowledge. At in which they do not conduct research studies. They the fringe or outer ring are millions of practitioners, focus exclusively on teaching, administration, con- clinicians, and technicians. They regularly use and sulting, clinical practice, advising, or sharing apply the knowledge, principles, and techniques knowledge with the wider public. In fact, about one- first developed and refined by those within the core. half of the people who receive scientific Ph.D.s do Professionals who toil on the outer rings develop a not follow careers as active researchers. level of expertise in and regularly use various sci- The core of the scientific community is made entific research principles and techniques; however, up of researchers who conduct studies on a full-time or regular basis, usually with the help of assistants, Scientific community A collection of people who many of whom are graduate students. Working as a share a system of attitudes, beliefs, and rules that sustains the production and advance of scientific research assistant, more or less as an apprentice, is knowledge. the best way to learn the details of scientific research. Most core members work at colleges, universities, 12  WHY DO RESEARCH? or research institutes. Some work for the govern- millions of people around the globe for generations ment, nonprofit organizations, or private industry in to come. This knowledge creation process makes organizations such as the Bureau of Labor Statistics, being an active participant in the scientific commu- the National Opinion Research Center, and the Rand nity or the consumer of new research findings both Corporation. The majority are at approximately 200 personally rewarding and exciting. major research universities or institutes in about a dozen advanced industrialized countries. The scien- The Scientific Community’s tific community is scattered geographically, but its Norms and Values members usually work together in small clusters and communicate with one another regularly. The com- Social norms regulate behavior in all human com- munity is widely accepting, and anyone in it can con- munities. During their many years of schooling and tribute to it. A key principle is to share one’s research regular interactions with one another, researchers findings and techniques (i.e., new knowledge) with learn and internalize professional norms and values. others in the community. Over time, the community The norms and values are mutually reinforcing and develops a consensus about the significance or worth contribute to the unique role of a social scientist. of the new knowledge based on an unbiased evalu- Professional norms express ideals of proper con- ation of it. The process of producing and evaluating duct, yet ideals do not always work perfectly in new knowledge is highly dynamic with new knowl- practice. Researchers are real human beings with edge being generated on nearly a daily basis. prejudices, egos, ambitions, and personal lives. We do not really know the exact size of the sci- Such factors may influence a few researchers to vi- entific community. As of 2006, roughly 3 percent of olate the community’s norms.12 the total U.S. workforce was employed in a science The scientific community does not operate in or engineering field (U.S. Census, 2008: Table 790). a vacuum isolated from the “real world.” It is af- The basic unit in the larger scientific community is an fected by social, political, and economic forces. academic field or discipline (e.g., sociology, biology, Nonetheless, the norms and values teach us how the psychology). Academic fields overlap somewhat, but scientific community and the larger research enter- this gives us a better idea of size. The United States prise operate. They also provide a guide for the has about 11,000 anthropologists, 16,000 sociolo- proper way to conduct a research study and provide gists, and 15,000 political scientists, most with doc- the principles of good research practice. toral degrees. These are small numbers compared to The five basic norms of the scientific commu- practitioners in related technical-professional areas: nity (see Summary Review Box 1, Norms of the Sci- about 180,000 architects, 950,000 lawyers, and entific Community) differ from those in other social 820,000 medical doctors. Each year, about 600 institutions (e.g., business, government, law) and tend people receive a Ph.D. in sociology, 15,000 receive to set professional researchers apart. For example, medical degrees, and 38,000 receive law degrees. consistent with the norm of universalism, scientists Recall that only about one-half of people who tend to admire a brilliant, creative researcher even if earn an advanced degree in a scientific field become the person has strange personal habits or a disheveled lifelong, active researchers. During a career, an ac- appearance. Scientists may argue intensely with one tive researcher may complete only two to ten stud- another and “tear apart” a carefully prepared research ies. A small handful of researchers is highly report as part of the norm of organized skepticism. productive and conducts numerous studies, partic- Scientists are usually very open and willing to listen ularly highly influential and widely read ones. At any one time, perhaps one hundred researchers are actively conducting studies on a specific topic Norms of the scientific community Informal rules, within a discipline (e.g., study of divorce or of the principles, and values that govern the way scientists death penalty) around the world.11 New knowl- conduct their research. edge from their studies could influence the lives of 13  WHY DO RESEARCH? work, especially when communalism conflicts with SUMMARY REVIEW BOX 1 the profit motive. For example, the publication of re- Norms of the Scientific Community search findings by scientists in the tobacco, pharma- ceutical, and computer chip industries often were 1. Universalism. Regardless of who conducts research (e.g., old or young, male or female) and of where it suppressed or seriously delayed by corporate offi- was conducted (e.g., United States, France, Harvard, cials for whom the profit motive overrode the scien- or Unknown University), the research is to be judged tific norm of commumalism.13 Scientists expect strict only on the basis of scientific merit. honesty in the conduct and reporting of research. 2. Organized skepticism. Scientists should not accept They become morally outraged if anyone cheats in new ideas or evidence in a carefree, uncritical man- research. ner. They should challenge and question all evidence and subject each study to intense scrutiny. The pur- pose of their criticism is not to attack the individual Scientific Method, Attitude, or Orientation but to ensure that the methods used in research can stand up to close, careful examination. You have probably heard of the scientific method, 3. Disinterestedness. Scientists must be neutral, im- and you may be wondering how it fits into this dis- partial, receptive, and open to unexpected observa- cussion. The scientific method is not one thing; it is tions and new ideas. They should not be rigidly a collection of ideas, rules, techniques, and ap- wedded to a particular idea or point of view. They proaches used by the scientific community. It grows should accept, even look for, evidence that runs out of a consensus formed within the community. It against their positions and should honestly accept all is important to grasp the orientation or attitude of findings based on high-quality research. science instead of a “scientific method.” The scien- 4. Communalism. Scientific knowledge must be tific community values craftsmanship, pride in cre- shared with others; it belongs to everyone. Creating ativity, high-quality standards, and plain hard work. scientific knowledge is a public act, and the findings As Grinnell (1987:125) stated: are public property, available for all to use. The way in which the research is conducted must be de- Most people learn about the “scientific method” scribed in detail. New knowledge is not formally ac- rather than about the scientific attitude. While the cepted until other researchers have reviewed it and “scientific method” is an ideal construct, the sci- it has been made publicly available in a special form entific attitude is the way people have of looking at and style. the world. Doing science includes many methods; 5. Honesty. This is a general cultural norm, but it is es- what makes them scientific is their acceptance by pecially strong in scientific research. Scientists de- the scientific collective. mand honesty in all research; dishonesty or cheating in scientific research is a major taboo. The scientific orientation tends simultaneously to be precise and logical, adopt a long-term view, be flexible and open ended, and be willing to share to new ideas, no matter how odd they might appear information widely (see Yankelovich, 2003). By at first. Following disinterestedness, scientists tend contrast, nonscientific thinking is impatient with to be somewhat detached. They see study results, in- pursuing great accuracy or rigor, wants definite im- cluding those from their own research, as being ten- mediate answers to particular issues that are current tative and subject to external evaluation and criticism. now, and tends to be rather possessive and appre- They want other social scientists to read and react to hensive about freely sharing everything. their research. A deep belief in openness has led many social scientists to oppose all forms of censorship. Journal Articles in Science This is consistent with the norm of communalism or sharing new knowledge without personal ownership, Perhaps you have seen an article from an academic which is like adding an ingredient into a shared soup or scholarly journal. When the scientific commu- that we all eat together. However, this does not always nity creates new knowledge, the new information 14  WHY DO RESEARCH? appears in scholarly journals or academic books Scholarly journal article An article in a specialized (called research monographs). Most new research publication that has members of the scientific com- findings often first appear as scholarly journal munity as its primary audience; a means to dissemi- articles. These articles are the way that scientists nate new ideas and findings within the scientific formally communicate with one another and dis- community. seminate the research results. The articles are also Blind review A process of judging the merits of a re- part of the much discussed “explosion of knowl- search report in which the peer researchers do not edge.” An academic discipline or field may have know the identity of the researcher, and the researcher does not know the identity of the evaluators in advance. 50–300 such journals. Each may publish an issue every one or two months, with five to twenty-five articles in each issue. For example, a leader among report, ask the author for revisions, or accept it for the sociology journals, the American Sociological publication. Review, publishes about 65 articles each year. The Almost all academic fields use peer referees for scholarly journal article is critical to the research publication, but not all use a blind review process. process and the scientific community, but it is not al- Fields such as sociology, psychology, and political ways well understood.14 science use blind reviews for almost all scholarly Let us consider what happens once a social sci- journals, often having three or more referees. By entist completes a research study. First, the scien- contrast, fields such as biology, history, and eco- tist writes a description of the study and the results nomics use a mix of review processes; sometimes as a research report in a special format. Often he or referees know the author’s identity and only one or she gives a 20-minute oral presentation of the report two review the study. Blind reviews with many ref- at the meeting of a professional association, such as erees slow the process and lower acceptance rates.15 the American Sociological Association or Society The blind review is a very cautious way to ensure for the Study of Social Problems. He or she gives an quality control. Its purpose is to advance the norm oral summary of the research to dozens of social sci- of organized skepticism and universalism in the sci- entists and students and answers questions from the entific community. audience. He or she may send a copy of the report Some scholarly journals are widely read and to a few other researchers for comments and sug- highly respected and receive many more reports than gestions. Finally, the researcher sends copies to the they can publish. For example, major social science editor of a scholarly journal, such as the Social journals, such as American Economic Review, Amer- Forces or the Social Science Quarterly. Each editor, ican Sociological Review, American Political Sci- a respected researcher who has been chosen by ence Review, and Social Problems, accept only 10 other scientists to oversee the journal, removes the to 15 percent of submitted manuscripts. Even less title page, which is the only place the author’s name esteemed journals regularly reject half of their sub- appears and then sends the report to several referees missions. Publication represents tentative accept- for a blind review. The referees are social scientists ance by the scientific community. Publishing a book who have conducted research in the same topic area. involves a somewhat different review process that The review is called “blind” because the referees do also includes cost and sales considerations, but the not know who conducted the research and the au- acceptance rate is often lower than for journals.16 thor does not know who the referees are. This rein- Unlike popular magazines that you see at news- forces the norm of universalism because referees stands that pay authors for their writing, scholarly judge the study on its merits alone. They evaluate journals do not pay authors for publishing. In fact, the research based on its clarity, adherence to high to have their manuscript considered, an author often standards of research methodology, and original is required to pay a small fee to help defray admin- contribution to knowledge. The referees return their istrative costs. Social scientists want to make their evaluations to the editor, who decides to reject the research available to informed peers (i.e., other 15  WHY DO RESEARCH? scientists and researchers) through scholarly jour- Doing so requires analytic reasoning, complex tech- nals. Likewise, referees are not paid for reviewing nical skills, intensive concentration, and a signifi- papers. They accept the work as a responsibility of cant time commitment. Yet with time, practice, and membership in the scientific community. Members education, most college students find they can mas- of the scientific community impart great respect ter the fundamentals of doing a research study. to researchers who are able to publish many articles Learning to do social research is no different from in the foremost scholarly journals. The articles learning many other activities. You want to begin confirm that they are highly skilled and leaders in small and simple, practice over and again, and learn advancing the primary goal of the scientific com- from your experiences and missteps. Gradually, you munity: to contribute to the accumulation of scien- will see improvements and be able advance to big- tific knowledge. ger and more complex endeavors. In addition to as- Publication of research is the primary way a so- similating a scientific attitude, you will need to learn cial scientist gains respect from peers, achieves how and when to apply specific research techniques. honor within the scientific community, and builds a After studying this text, you should grasp both the reputation as an accomplished researcher. More re- method and methodology of social science research spect from peers (i.e., knowledgeable social scien- and be able to conduct research studies. tists) enables a scientist to move toward the center of the scientific community. Publications and the resulting respect from peers also help a social sci- VARI ETI ES OF SOCIAL RES EARCH entist obtain grant money for further research, fel- lowships, a following of top students, improved You may think social scientific research means working conditions, lucrative jobs offers, and salary conducting a survey or an experiment and perhaps increases.17 using advanced statistics with charts, tables, and Even if you never publish a scholarly journal graphs. Or you may think it involves carefully ob- article, you will likely read some of them. They are serving people as they carry out their everyday af- a vital part of the system of scientific research. Most fairs in some natural setting such as a café, family new scientific knowledge first appears in scholarly reunion, or classroom. Both are partially true. Some journals. Active social scientists and college teachers social scientific research involves quantitative data, regularly read the journals to learn about new knowl- (i.e., data in the form of numbers), but other research edge being produced and the research methods used. uses qualitative data (i.e., non-numerical) without statistics. You will see that we examine both quantitative Science as a Transformative Process and qualitative data and associated approaches to In the research process, social scientists apply var- conducting social science research. Both ap- ious scientific methods to transform ideas, hunches, proaches use multiple research techniques (e.g., sur- and questions, sometimes called hypotheses, into vey, interview, ethnography) to gather and analyze new knowledge. Thus, the social scientific research empirical data. Despite some real differences be- process essentially transforms our ideas, theories, tween quantitative and qualitative research, they guesses, or questions into a “finished product” with overlap a great deal. Unfortunately, advocates of real value: new knowledge. The new knowledge can one approach do not always understand or appreci- improve our understanding of the social world and ate the other approach. Some social scientists treat its operation. It might be used to help solve prob- the differences in the approaches as being at war lems or to expand future knowledge and under- with one another. Levine (1993:xii) called the quan- standing. titative approach “real social science” and claimed Many newcomers to social research feel over- it “won the battle” against qualitative studies. On whelmed and that doing a study is beyond them. the other hand, Denzin and Lincoln (2005:ix) 16  WHY DO RESEARCH? TA B L E 2 Quantitative versus Qualitative Approaches QUANTITATIVE APPROACH QUALITATIVE APPROACH Measure objective facts Construct social reality, cultural meaning Focus on variables Focus on interactive processes, events Reliability the key factor Authenticity the key factor Value free Values present and explicit Separate theory and data Theory and data fused Independent of context Situationally constrained Many cases, subjects Few cases, subjects Statistical analysis Thematic analysis Researcher detached Researcher involved Sources: Crewsell (1994), Denzin and Lincoln (2003a), Guba and Lincoln (1994), Marvasti (2004), Mostyn (1985), and Tashakkori and Teddlie (1998). argued that “the extent to which a qualitative revo- and qualitative approaches, but this rarely happens lution is taking over the social sciences and related for several reasons. Mixing approaches is more time professional fields is nothing short of amazing.” consuming. Few researchers have expertise in more Both approaches share core scientific prin- than one approach. Also, each approach uses a dis- ciples, but they also differ in significant ways (see tinct logic for guiding the research process, and Table 2). Each approach has its strengths and limi- blending the distinct logics in one study adds sig- tations. There are topics or issues where it excel, and nificant complexity. classic studies that provide remarkable insights into social life. Social scientists who do quantitative or qualitative research try to avoid both the misjudg- STEPS I N TH E RES EARCH PROCESS ments and errors discussed earlier. All social scien- The Steps tists gather data systematically, make careful comparisons, and use critical thinking. By under- To conduct a study, we follow a sequence of steps; standing both approaches, you can best understand however, the exact sequence and specific steps vary the full range of social scientific research and use according to whether we follow a quantitative or them in complementary ways. qualitative approach and the type of social research Ragin (1994a:92) explained how the ap- study we are conducting. Later you will see that the proaches complement each other as data condensers steps outlined here may be somewhat simplified and or enhancers: idealized from the actual process, but they are still a useful starting point. The key features common to all qualitative methods can be seen when they are contrasted with quanti- tative methods. Most quantitative data techniques Quantitative Approach to Social Research are data condensers. They condense data in order to see the big picture.... Qualitative methods, by 1. Select a topic. This may be a general area contrast, are best understood as data enhancers. of study or an issue of professional or per- When data are enhanced, it is possible to see key aspects of cases more clearly. sonal interest. Topics are broad, such as the effects of divorce, reasons for delinquency, The ideal is to conduct a multimethod study impact of homelessness, or how elites use the that draws on the strengths of both the quantitative media. 17  WHY DO RESEARCH? 2. Focus the question. A topic is too broad for ac- consider alternative interpretations of the data, tually conducting a study. This makes the next compare our results with those of past studies, step crucial: We must narrow the topic to focus and draw out wider implications of what we on a specific research question that a study have learned. can address. Often this requires reviewing the 7. Inform others. At this stage, we write a report research literature and developing hypotheses about the study in a specific format and pres- that often come from social theory. For ent a description of both the study and its re- example, a broad topic—reasons for delin- sults (see Figure 1). quency—becomes the focused research ques- tion: Are teenage East Asian immigrant males We next consider three examples of the quan- with strong ties to their home culture and who titative approach to social research. Each is a type have not assimilated into the new society more of quantitative research that will be the focus of a likely to engage in delinquent acts than those chapter later in this book: the experiment, sample with weaker home culture ties and who have survey, and existing statistics. assimilated? Notice how the initial broad topic, Authors and title of the study: Lowery and col- reasons for delinquency, becomes focused. We leagues (2007) “Long-Term Effects of Subliminal focus on a specific reason for delinquency (i.e., Priming on Academic Performance” degree of assimilation) and look at a specific group of people (i.e., teenaged immigrant 1. Select a topic. Priming and academic per- males from East Asia). formance 3. Design the study. Once we settle on a research 2. Focus the question. Do undergraduate college question, we need to design the study. Design- students who are “primed” subliminally with ing a study requires making many decisions intelligence-related words improve their perfor- about the type of case or sample to select, how mance on a test? Subliminally means to present to measure relevant factors, and what research something in a way so that the receiver is not technique (e.g., questionnaire, experiment) to consciously aware of it. Priming occurs when a employ. At this stage as well, decision making word, image, or information alerts, prepares or is informed by theory. “sets up” a person for a subsquent behavior. 4. Collect data. After we design a study in detail, we must carefully record and verify 1. Select Topic information typically in the form of numbers. Next we must transfer numerical data into a computer-readable format if it is not already in 7. Inform Others 2. Focus Question that format. 5. Analyze the data. This step usually requires the use of computer software to manipulate the THEORY numerical data to create many charts, tables, 6. Interpret Data 3. Design Study graphs, and statistical measures. These com- puter-generated documents provide a con- densed picture of the data. 6. Interpret the data. After we produce charts, 5. Analyze Data 4. Collect Data tables, and statistics, we must determine what they mean. We examine the analyzed data, use knowledge of the research topic, and draw on theory to answer our research question. We F I G U R E 1 Steps in the Quantitative Research Process 18  WHY DO RESEARCH? 3. Design the study. The authors conducted two 4. Collect the data. The randomly selected adults similar experiments. The first was with seventy answered many questions on social back- students in a beginning undergraduate statis- grounds, religious practice and belief, expla- tics class. The second was with seventy-eight nations of racial inequality, and beliefs about students in an introduction to social psychol- African Americans in a 30-minute telephone ogy class. In both experiments, the authors interview. showed students words on different sides of a 5. Analyze the data. The authors looked at nu- computer screen. They told students that the merous tables with percentages and statistical study was about their ability to locate the words tests. (this was not true). One random half of students 6. Interpret the data. The authors found that saw words related to intelligence (e.g., sharp, survey respondents with strong conservative bright, genius, educated). The other random Protestant Christian beliefs and who were half saw unrelated words. Students in both ex- most involved in religious activities favored periments took a practice exam. A few days individualistic explanations of Black in- later, they took the exam in their course. equality (i.e., personal failings, lack of moti- 4. Collect the data. Data for this study were test vation) over structural explanations (i.e., results for both the practice and actual exam in racial discrimination). In addition, among both the statistics and introduction to social conservative Christians, the views of women psychology classes. differed from men, and the educated from the 5. Analyze the data. The authors looked at vari- less educated. ous tables and conducted statistical tests. 7. Inform others. The authors prepared a descrip- 6. Interpret the data. The results showed that the tion of the study with its results that they sub- students in both classes who had been exposed mitted to the scholarly journal Social Problems. or “primed” with intelligence-related words scored much higher on both tests. How does theory fit in? The authors examined 7. Inform others. A description of the study with a theory suggesting that a white evanglical sub- its results appeared in the scholarly journal culture fosters particular attitudes about social Basic and Applied Social Psychology. and political issues; it deemphasizes structural explanations (discrimination, government How does theory fit in? The authors retested help) and emphasizes individualist, self-help a theory of subliminal priming. They looked at explanations. whether effects can continue for several days after a priming event. Authors and title of the study: Rory McVeigh and Julian Sobolewski (2007) “Red Counties, Blue Authors and title of the study: Penny Edgell and Counties, and Occupational Segregation by Sex and Eric Tranby (2007) “Religious Influences on Un- Race” derstandings of Racial Inequality in the United States” 1. Select a topic. Social inequality and voting 2. Focus the question. Did occupational segre- 1. Select a topic. Religion and racial attitudes gation by gender and race—a major source 2. Focus the question. Does a white evangelical of social inequality—influence how people Christian subculture and belief system encour- voted in the 2004 U.S. presidential election? age or discourage an individualist, nonsup- Occupational segregation occurs when one portive stance toward inequality and toward group (e.g., one gender, one race) almost ex- African Americans? clusively holds a type of job. 3. Design the study. The authors prepared a large- 3. Design the study. The authors identified spe- scale national survey in 2003 involving 2,081 cific factors for which the government collects randomly selected adults in the United States. data at the county level: choice of presidential 19  WHY DO RESEARCH? candidate and occupational segregation by race itative researchers rely on personal beliefs, and gender. They also considered features of biography, or specific current issues to identify the labor market in a county (e.g., racial mix of a topic of interest or importance. the county, educational credentials of women 2. Adopt a perspective. Qualitative researchers and non-Whites, degree of mobility into a may ponder the theoretical-philosophical county) that might threaten or weaken the de- paradigm or place their inquiry in the context gree of occupational segregation. of ongoing discussions with other researchers. 4. Collect the data. Data came from the U.S. cen- Rather than narrowing down a topic, this means sus on occupations, demographics, and voting. choosing a direction that may contain many