Types of Research PDF

Types of Research FSBA-II Major-05 - Unit- TWO Introduction Research in common dialect refers to a search for knowledge. One can also define research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. Research is the art of scientific investig...

Types of Research FSBA-II Major-05 - Unit- TWO Introduction Research in common dialect refers to a search for knowledge. One can also define research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. Research is the art of scientific investigation. Types of Research: The basic types of research are as follows: (i) Descriptive vs. Analytical (ii)Applied vs. Fundamental (iii)Quantitative vs. Qualitative (iv)Conceptual vs. Empirical (v) Longitudinal vs. Cross-sectional Historical Research Method History is the record of the changing processes. History consists of changes that social structures undergo. Social scientists study the past to gain a better understanding of the present state of affairs. History is the meaningful record of man’s achievement. It is not merely a list of characteristics of chronological events, but an integrated account of the relationship between persons, events, times, and places.  Historical Research Method John W. Best, “Man uses history to understand the past, and try to understand the present in the light of past events and developments.” F.N. Kerlinger, “Historical research is the application of the scientific method of inquiry to historical problems.” Whitney, “Historical research deals with the past experiences….its aim is to apply the method of reflective thinking of social problems, still unsolved, by means of discovery of past trends of event, fact, and attitude. It traces the lines of development in human thought and action in order to reach some basis for social activity.” Redcliff Browne, “Historical method may be defined as a system in which present-day events are studied with reference to the events that took place in the past.”  Historical method seeks to find explanation of questions of current interest by an intensive study of the past. Many studies in the field of economics, politics, sociology, education and psychology are essentially historical in approach. Purpose of Historical Research (i) Historical researches provide important information concerning the effects of certain past practices and may suggest plans for future actions. (ii) It also offers an explanation of the how and why of many of the theories and practices that have developed and now prevail in the school/college. (iii) It contributes to an understanding of the significance of the phenomenon studied. (iv) It helps to gain an accurate account of the past. (v) It helps to gain a clear perspective of the present. Sources of Historical Research There are many sources for collection of historical data like; Autobiographies, Diaries, Confessions, Memories, Personal letters, Accessible documents, news-papers and literature, books and Magazines, Cultural and Analytical history material, Artistic materials, historical paintings, Portraits , charts etc. These sources can be divided into two categories i.e. Primary sources and Secondary sources. Primary Sources The original documents are termed as Primary sources. These are solid basis of historical research and are highly prized by a historian. According to Kerlinger, “A primary source is the only repository of a historical datum, like an original record kept of an important occasion, an eye witness description of an event, a photograph, minutes of organization meeting and so on.” (i) Document or records: These are maintained and written by actual participants or witnesses of an event. These sources are produced for the purpose of transmitting information to be used in the future. Documents classified as primary sources are constitution, charters, laws, court decisions, diaries, deeds, genealogies, contracts, wills, autobiographies, letters, official minutes or records, permits, licenses, affidavits, depositions, declarations, proclamations certificates, lists, bills, handbills, receipts, newspapers, magazines, accounts, maps, diagrams, books, pamphlets, catalogs, films, pictures, paintings, recordings, transcriptions and research reports. (ii) Remains or Relics: These are associated with a person, group, period, fossils, skeletons, tools, weapons, food utensils, clothing, buildings, furniture, coins, art objects, pictures and paintings are examples of relics. (iii) Oral Testimony: These are spoken account of witness or participant in an event. It is obtained in a personal interview. It may be recorded or transcript as the witness relates his experiences. Secondary Sources of Data In the words of Kerlinger, “A secondary source is an account or record of a historical event or circumstance one or more steps removed from an original history.” Secondary sources are the reports of a person who relates the testimony of an actual witness of, or participant in an event. The writer of the secondary source who was not on the scene of the event, merely reports what the person who was there said or wrote. Most history books and encyclopedias are examples of secondary sources. Characteristics of Historical Method (i) The historical method is universal. (ii) The historical method involves intense and intensive investigation of material that already exists. (iii) Historical facts cannot be repeated in an accurate fashion as can be done in laboratory observation. (iv) Only such problems that are based on historical records can be investigated by following this approach. (v) Historical approach to research is the application of scientific method to historical problems. (vi) In the Historical Method hypothesis may or may not be formulated depending upon the nature of the research. (vii) The interpretation of data entirely depends upon the topic of research. Approaches to Historical Research 1. Perspective Approach: It means to study the events from the past towards the present. It is the ancient approach. The ancient approach was to study the political personality approach. 2. Retrospective Approach: It means to study the events of the present and proceed to past events. It is a recent approach to studying the phenomena in the social milieu. Types of Historical Research (1) Approach: An example is the pragmatic approach used by Karl Marx to arrange facts of history to support his concept of socialism. (2) Subject: It includes the bibliography of a given person, monography of a town, state, nation, or civilization, or a slightly higher level of the history of ideas, institutions or trends. (3) Technique: It is based either on documents or relics. (4) Classical studies (5) Documentary research: It considers only documents. (6) Bibliographical research: It includes the history of a unit. (nation, person, culture) (7) Legal Research The Steps of Historical Research (1) Identification and Definition of the Problem: It involves not only the location of the problem, which has a historical significance but also the availability of adequate data. (2) Collection of Data: It may involve anything from digging up ancient ruins to stumbling on old documents or remains. Most educational data have to be gathered routinely by giving minutes of meetings, diaries, etc. Data are collected by two sources: primary and secondary. (3) Criticism of Data: The establishment of the validity of data involves a dual process, of first establishing the authenticity of the sources and then the validity of its content. (4) Interpretation of Data: This should be made from the standpoint of a hypothesis or theory of the data. Data should be considered in relation to one another and synthesized into a generalization or conclusion which places the overall significance in focus. Limitations of Historical Research 1. It is very difficult to study historical events on the basis of cause- effect relationships. 2. Many obstacles hinder the objectivity of the study. 3. The investigator must have a special historical perspective. 4. The importance of historical research has declined due to the use of scientific methods in social sciences. Guidelines of Historical Research 1. Primary sources should be used as extensively as possible. 2. Personal bias should not be allowed to influence research procedures. 3. Proper recognition should be given to the inter-relationship of education with other social institutions and forces. 4. Words and expressions should be interpreted in the light of their usages in earlier times. 5. Various facts should be synthesized and integrated into meaningful generalizations. 6. Significant facts must be distinguished from trivial facts in a situation. Descriptive Research Descriptive research typically involves measuring a variable or set of variables as they exist naturally. Unlike the other research strategies, the descriptive research strategy is not concerned with relationships between variables but rather with the description of individual variables. The goal is to describe a single variable or to obtain separate descriptions for each variable when several are involved. This strategy is extremely useful as preliminary research (i.e., in the early stages of research) and in its own right. The first step in understanding a new phenomenon is to gain some idea of the variable of interest as it naturally exists. In addition, the results from descriptive research can help us capture interesting, naturally occurring behavior.  A researcher conducts a survey to determine the average number of text messages that college students send or receive during a typical 1- hour class. Which research strategy is being used? a. The descriptive research strategy b. The correlational research strategy c. The experimental research strategy d. The nonexperimental research strategy  How does the descriptive research strategy differ from the experimental or nonexperimental research strategies? a. It involves comparing groups of scores. b. It does not concern relationships between variables. c. It attempts to describe and explain relationships between variables. d. It does not involve the measurement of variables. Field Studies Field studies allow researchers to observe and collect data in real-world settings. Unlike laboratory-based or traditional research methods, field studies enable researchers to investigate complex phenomena within their environment, providing a deeper understanding of the research context. Researchers can use field studies to investigate a wide range of subjects, from the behavior of animals to the practices of businesses or the experiences of individuals in a particular setting. This research method has become increasingly popular in recent years as researchers recognize the limitations of traditional research methods and seek to gain a more holistic and authentic understanding of their research topics. What is a field study? A field study is a research method that involves conducting observations and collecting data in a natural setting. This method includes observing, interviewing, and interacting with participants in their environment, such as a workplace, community, or natural habitat. Field studies can take many forms, from ethnographic studies involving extended periods of observation and using an anthropological lens to shorter-term studies focusing on specific behaviors or events. Regardless of its form, a successful field study requires careful planning, preparation, and execution to ensure the data collected is valid and reliable. Planning a field study is a critical first step in ensuring successful research. Planning a Field Study The following are the steps that are involved in the field study; 1. Define your research question 2. Identify your research site 3. Determine your data collection methods 4. Obtain necessary permissions  Advantages of field research Field research has several advantages over other research methods, including: Authenticity: Field research conducted in natural settings allows researchers to observe and study real-life phenomena as they happen. This authenticity enhances the validity and accuracy of the data collected. Flexibility: Field research methods are flexible and adaptable to different research contexts. Researchers can adjust their strategies to meet the specific needs of their research questions and participants and uncover new insights as the research unfolds. Rich data: Field research provides rich and detailed data, often including contextual information that’s difficult to capture through other research methods. This depth of knowledge allows for a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the research topic. Novel insights: Field research can lead to discoveries that may not be possible with other research methods. Observing and studying phenomena in natural settings can provide unique perspectives and new understandings of complex issues. Field research methods can enhance the quality and validity of research findings and lead to new insights and discoveries that may not be possible with other research methods. Disadvantages of field research While field research has several advantages, there are also some disadvantages that researchers need to consider, including: Time-consuming: Researchers need to spend time in the field, possibly weeks or months, which can be challenging, especially if the research site is remote or requires travel. Cost: Conducting field research can be costly, especially if the research site is remote or requires specialized equipment or materials. Reliance on participants: It may be challenging to recruit participants, and various factors, such as personal circumstances, attitudes, and beliefs, may influence their participation. Ethical considerations: Field research may raise ethical concerns, mainly if the research involves vulnerable populations or sensitive topics. Causality: Researchers may have little control over the environmental or contextual variables they are studying. This can make it difficult to establish causality and then generalize their results with previous research. Researchers must carefully weigh the advantages and disadvantages of field research and select the most appropriate research method based on their research question, participants, and context Survey Method The term survey is used for the techniques of investigation by a direct observation of a phenomenon or a systematic gathering of data from population by applying personal contact and interviews when adequate information about certain problem is not available in records, files and other sources. The survey is an important tool to gather evidences relating to certain social problems. The term social survey indicates the study of social phenomena through a survey of a small sampled population and also to broad segments of population. It is concerned with the present and attempts to determine the status of the phenomenon under investigation. Definitions “A social survey is a process by which quantitative facts are collected about the social aspects of a community composition and activities.” A. F. Well “The survey is in briefly a method of analysis in scientific and orderly form for defined purpose of given social situation of problem and population.” S. Herman Objects of Social Survey (i) Direct and close contact of researcher to the phenomenon under study. (ii) To collect general information. (iii) A basis for hypothesis. (iv) To explain cause and effect relationship. (v) To know opinion and attitudes of the people. Purposes (i) It provides necessary information which helps the administrator for making decisions. (ii) It provides necessary information and plan for improvement so it is forward-looking. (iii) It interprets, synthesizes and integrates data and points out their implications. (iv) It is more realistic because investigation is done in this method in natural setting. (v) It is the only method through which the researcher can obtain the opinions, attitudes and suggestions for improvement. (vi) It is useful in the development of research tools such as checklists, questionnaires etc. Types of Descriptive Method Descriptive method is divided into four parts. They are:  The Survey Studies: They are of following types; The Inter-relationship Studies are of following types;  The Developmental Studies are of the following types; The Content Analysis deals with the nature utility and procedure of content analysis. The important problems in this area are as follows; (i) Developing and modifying curriculum. (ii) Developing a standardized test in any subject. (iii) Differentiating aspects of different writing styles. Characteristics of Survey Method (i) Social survey is confined to the study of specific current problems of society for example poverty, unemployment etc. (ii) A survey research is planned collection of data for prediction of relations between the variables. (iii) Survey is concerned with large or widely dispersed group of peoples contrasted with the lab experiments. (iv) Under this method observation, interviews, attitude scales, projective techniques, small scale experiments etc. are used to collect data. (v) The facts collected here may form the basis of further social researches. Planning a Survey Method The following are the steps that are involved in survey methods; (i) Select a problem. (ii) Preliminary or pilot study should be done. (iii) General and Specific objectives of the study are to be framed. (iv) It should be determined which of the variables, identified in the problem; adequate techniques for data collection are available, and if not then is it possible for the researcher to design them. (v) Population should be identified and a representative sample should be selected. (vi) Data collection design should be prepared. (vii) The data should be collected. (viii) The data should be analyzed. (ix) The report should be prepared with descriptive past, comparative or evaluative past and findings. Advantages of Survey Methods (i) Direct and close contact between researcher and respondents (ii) Great objectivity. (iii) Testing the validity of theories. (iv) Formulation and testing of hypothesis. (v) Social surveys are based on actual observation. (vi) It has a universal application. Limitations (i) The survey method is costly, time-consuming and wasteful in certain cases where the objectives are limited. (ii) The survey method is unsuitable if the number of persons to be surveyed is very large or if they are spread over a large geographical area. (iii) In this method personal bias may vitiate the result. (iv) It lacks the flexibility. (v) In this method, it is very difficult to verify the accuracy of the data collection. (vi) Only useful for current problems. (vii) It does not permit more comprehensive and dynamic study of the society but deals with the problems of immediate importance only. (viii) Under this method most of the surveys are conducted on a sample basis. If the sample is not carefully planned, inferences drawn may be inaccurate and misleading. The Case Study The case study design involves the in-depth study and detailed description of a single individual (or a very small group). A case study may involve an intervention or treatment administered by the researcher. When a case study does not include any treatment or intervention, it often is called a case history. The information included in a case study can be obtained in a variety of ways, such as interviews with the client and/or close relatives, observation of the client, surveys, and archival data. Applications of the Case Study Design Case studies can be used to provide information about rare and unusual behaviors To demonstrate new treatment methods or applications. Furthermore, case studies can suggest new variables that might account for a particular outcome and thereby generate hypotheses for future research. However, case studies tend to be weak in both internal and external validity. The value of case studies Being a somewhat unstructured, probably un-replicable, study on just one individual or group, the case-study design would seem to be of the rich but not generalizable type. Bromley (1986) has argued, however, that case studies are the ‘bedrock of scientific investigation’. Many psychological studies, he argues, are difficult to replicate in principle and it is the interesting, unpredictable case that has traditionally spurred scientists towards changes in paradigm or theoretical innovation. Bromley feels that a preoccupation with the experiment and psychometrics has led to most psychologists' serious neglect of the case-study approach. He points out that psychological evidence can be valid and effective, yet remain unquantifiable. Ex-Post Facto Design Ex post facto designs are often selected when the variable of interest cannot be ethically manipulated. For example we often see this design being used to examine the effects of certain educational techniques, laws, disease, economic changes, war, or psychopathology. This design arrangement is used to determine whether there meaningful relationships between events that have already occurred in the past. This approach is unique because the researcher is working backward. In this case he or she already knows the outcome and is attempting to determine the antecedents of this particular outcome. Definition The ex post facto research design, also known as “after the fact” research, is a non-experimental research method that examines the causal relationship between independent and dependent variables when the researcher cannot control or manipulate the independent variables due to ethical or practical constraints. It involves studying the effects of an independent variable, after it has occurred, on a dependent variable. Characteristics Ex post facto research design holds certain unique characteristics that define and separate it from other types of research designs. Lack of Control Over Independent Variables In this research design, the researcher has no control over the independent variables because they have already occurred, and their manipulation is impossible or unethical. Retrospective Nature The retrospective nature of ex post facto research is a significant attribute. The researcher studies events that have already happened and examines their effect on the present or future situation. Comparisons and Associations Ex post facto research mainly involves comparing and establishing associations between different groups based on the independent variables under study. Applications and Importance Ex post facto research design is commonly used in various fields such as psychology, sociology, medicine, and economics, especially when experiments are not feasible or ethical. Ethical Research Ex post facto research design is invaluable in studying phenomena that would be unethical to manipulate experimentally, such as studying the effects of child abuse or drug addiction. Practical Constraints Sometimes, it might not be practical to conduct experimental research due to time or cost constraints. In such cases, ex post facto research is used. Strengths and Limitations Like any other research design, the ex post facto design has its strengths and limitations. Strengths The ex post facto research design is valuable when experimental research is not possible. It can help establish correlations and reveal patterns that might not be evident in an experimental design. Limitations One significant limitation of the ex post-facto research design is the inability to determine causality definitively. This is because the independent variable has already occurred, and the researcher cannot control it. Ethnographic Study Ethnography is perhaps a strange term, it is the combination of two ancient Greek words: ethnos, meaning “people” and graph, meaning “writing” or even “describing”; so, ethnography is writing about (or describing) a people. Within the context of research methods, it means describing a particular social group or social setting. Ethnographic methods are part of the qualitative methodologies and enable researchers to become immersed in social worlds. Ethnography has a long, well-established tradition and recognized validity in the social sciences and its alleged lack of objectivity is simply a common misconception. Ethnography can be used for comparative analysis of cultural groups (e.g. eating habits of North Indians and South Indians), also known as 'Ethnology'(etic). Further, it can also be used to analyze the cultural past of a group of people (e.g. Harappan civilization), also known as 'Ethnohistory'(emic). Elements of Ethnography Ethnography brings a variety of techniques into play as follows: Various forms of observation Social interaction Formal and informal interviews Collection of documents and artefacts Photographs, video, and other visual material In sum “Ethnography is a disciplined investigation of the enactment, articulation, and transmission of social imaginaries (values, beliefs, ideas…) and material practices” (Harvey, 2012, para. 5). Types of Ethnography Design Some of the types of ethnography design used in social sciences are as follows (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005; Eberle & Maeder, 2016; Suzuki et al., 2005; Taber, 2010): 1. Life History This design describes the life experiences of research participants and the contexts of the event influencing the participant’s life. As a data collection strategy, researchers can choose a key figure knowledgeable with cultural context to represent the community being studied, as proposed by Suzuki et al. (2005). 2. Memoir The memoir contains the researcher’s notes while doing ethnographic research in a particular community. A researcher is independent and assumed to be more objective and capable of honestly describing the truth within a culture (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005). 3. Narrative ethnography In narrative ethnography, the participant writes his/her experiences and understanding of his cultural reality. In this process, the researcher assists in the inquiry by providing feedback to participants that aims to improve the writing to be more holistic in describing his community’s culture. 4. Auto-ethnography In auto-ethnography, the researcher writes and describes their own journey while experiencing a culture (Packer, 2011). An example of auto-ethnography is by Taber (2010) who wrote about how her learning on feminism helps to reflect on her position as a woman in a military unit. 5. Fiction Fiction is an ethnography design in the form of short stories, poems, novels, and performances, of which descriptions and cultures of the participant from the participant’s perspective are presented. Jones and Munro’s (2005)’ writing experience at State University is also an example of a fiction ethnography, particularly the poem "Dear Grandpa" due to his insomnia following deep sadness for his grandfather’s passing. The recital of the poem was held as a performance, which is also one form of fiction (Jones & Munro, 2005; Suzuki et al., 2005). 6. Applied ethnography The design is related to ethnography studies of social change or the effectiveness of a community empowerment program (Pelto, 2016; Suzuki et al., 2005). The researcher will use the ethnography approach in the description of the culture of a community as a tool to apply intervention or as a basis for implementing a policy. For example, the feeding practices of children aged 12 to 24 months in a community describe a proper intervention program to be conducted by an NGO towards that particular community (Pelto, 2016). 7. Ethnography decision model The ethnography decision model is regarded as a contemporary approach to ethnography design (Suzukietal., 2005), which relates to the decision-making process of a group of people on something (Beck, 2005). The researcher identifies factors influencing a participant in a community in making a decision. An example of an ethnography decision model is in a study by Young 1980 (Beck, 2005) on a decision in a selecting disease handling method conducted by a farming family living in West Mexico. 8. Institutional ethnography The design is introduced by Dorothy Smith 1987 (Taber, 2010) which aims to describe the daily life of a group of people in relation to rules or a system. This concept is based on the idea that not everyone in the community easily complies with the domination of regulations, and thus, it is necessary to understand how people react to a certain system and a particular regulation in order to provide input in making regulations and policies (Taber, 2010). An example is how a mother as a single parent interacts with her child’s school system in a community (Taber, 2010). 9. Organizational ethnography This ethnography is based on multi-method approach (the use of observation technique, interview, document analysis, and assessment on artifact use) that aims to understand the daily operation of a certain social structure of the organization. In this design, the researcher needs to consider the theory to be used in explaining the cultural condition in an organization or social structure (Eberle & Maeder, 2016). An example is a study by Gary Alan Fine 1996, (Eberle & Maeder, 2016) on the working culture in a restaurant as an organizational entity. Eberle and Maeder (2016) further explained that a researcher can work or become a member of the organization being studied. Understanding and Using Ethography in Psychological Research The use of ethnography in studies of psychology is related to the challenge faced by ethnography researchers with regard to building a good rapport with the members of the community and being aware that the researchers are also parts of the community being studied (Banister et al., 2006; Suzuki et al., 2005). In ethnography design, the process of understanding and describing the psychological phenomena is developed not with the control of the researcher, but the natural situation free from any control; the latter is important to acquire a holistic interpretation from the participants about the world and the reality that they live in (Gobo & Marciniak, 2016; Packer, 2011; Tanggaard, 2014). Ethnography focuses on the culture and perspective of the society in living their behaviors in relation to certain underlying cultures within the society (Bengry- Howell & Griffin, 2012). When using ethnography, the researcher conduct interpretations of the findings in relation to people’s experiences situated in context where the study takes place (Banister et al., 2006; Willig & Stainton-Rogers, 2008).  There are three things to consider before conducting ethnography research design in Psychology. First, ethnography is suitable for pilot study and preliminary research (Brewer, 2000) to expose a phenomenon at its early stages or less frequently studied. Ethnography research could also function as an assessment of the intervention conducted in a community and organization, on how an intervention may influence the existing culture of a community and organization (Gobo & Marciniak, 2016). Second, ethnography is better suited to studies of a community and/or the behaviors a group of people influenced by particular underlying cultures in that community (Case et al., 2014). In such studies, ethnography can better expose how the culture and context formulate a subjective meaning of the community and the social process in formulating the norms of a community (Case et al., 2014). Third, ethnography has been used in psychological research in organizational setting and the particular culture related to the organization (Eberle & Maeder, 2016). Challenges to the Use of Ethnography Psychological Studies There are at least five challenges identified from the literature in employing ethnography in psychology studies. First is the self-representation of the researcher in their description of culture of the studied community (Suzuki et al., 2005). Second, ethnography focuses on the subjectivity of the studied community that challenges the ‘mainstream’ approach in psychology that uses theories as frameworks in the attempt to describe and understanding of phenomena. Third, the objectivity of the researcher when describing the phenomenon needs to be considered. Presentation of ethnography narration often uses the researcher’s view as the first person perspective while the majority of literature in psychology uses a third-person perspective (Banister et al., 2006; Suzuki et al., 2005). For instance, ethnographic researchers will encounter difficulties in describing the client’s perspective in Counseling Psychology (Suzuki et al., 2005). Fourth, ethnography is known to require a substantial time duration data collection and a total involvement in a natural setting (Bengry-Howell & Griffin, 2012; Suzuki et al., 2005). Researchers require at least 6 months– 1 year to get actively involved in the studied community to understand the setting of the study (Bengry-Howell & Griffin, 2012; Suzuki et al., 2005). On cases requiring immediate intervention towards the community, the use of this design would pose time challenges. Fifth, participant observation in ethnography is only conducted in one community or a single place (single site) in classic ethnography approach. When conducting ethnography, there is a possibility for the participants in the studied community to be in several places so that the researchers must be ready to conduct observation in various places (multiple sites). Suggestions in Applying Ethnography in Psychological Studies There are several suggestions to address the challenges described above if a psychological researcher considers using ethnography. First, a continuous reflection by both researchers and participants is required when describing the narration of findings to ensure that the data would accurately describe the target culture of the target community (Gobo & Marciniak, 2016; Packer, 2011; Tanggaard, 2014). Second, it is advisable to combine several data collection methods besides participant observation in order to expose the culture of that community, such as conducting interviews, studying the files on the archives of the target community, questionnaires, or online interactions of the community (Smets et al., 2014; Tanggaard, 2014). Third, it is advisable to choose which ethnography design is well-suited to the studied phenomena(Bengry-Howell&Griffin,2012). Fourth, it is necessary to ensure a strategy to flee to safety when entering and leaving the research sites (Bengry-Howell & Griffin, 2012). Conclusion Ethnography is a qualitative research approach that requires the involvement of the researcher in a natural situation to expose the culture, values, and social meaning of a group of people, which holds a promising opportunity for psychological research. This subjectivity may occur to both the researcher and the participant, requiring a continuous reflection to help the narration of findings to capture the actual situation in that particular community. Challenges in ethnography design do not stop the possibility of using ethnography for studies in psychology due to the capability of this design to holistically expose a certain behavior in its natural setting (Gobo & Marciniak, 2016). It can be concluded that ethnography holds great potential for qualitative psychological research, especially to seek an understanding of the culture of a certain group which underlies the behavior of people in that group. Diagnostic research Diagnostic research is about identifying the underlying causes of a condition, behavior, or phenomenon. Diagnostic research answer questions like "why does this happen?" and "what are the causes of this problem?“ Example: Why sales of a product is declining? What are the causes of this problem? How to increase sales? Diagnostic research evaluate the frequency with which something occurs and its interaction with other elements. Diagnostic research is also called Clinical research. It is the study of health and illness in people. It is the way we learn how to prevent, diagnose and treat illness. Diagnostic research Diagnostic research includes three steps: Step-1: The inception of the issue - When did the issue arise? Inwhat situations the issue become evident? Step-2: Diagnosis of the issue - What are the underlying causes of the issue? Which factors influencing the issue to worsen? Step-3: Solution for the issue - What is working to resolve the issue? Under what circumstances the problem seem to become less evident? Acknowledgment Coolican, H. (2014): Research Methods and Statistics in Psychology. Sixth edition. Psychology Press (UK). Frost, N. (2011). Qualitative research methods in psychology: Combining core approaches. McGraw-Hill Education (UK). https://doi.org/10.1037/e586602011-001 Gravetter, F.J., Forzano, L.B., Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences. Sixth Edition, Cengage (USA). Singh, A. K. (1987) : Tests, Measurement & Research Methods in Behavioral Sciences. Tata McGraw Hill, Bombay Simanjuntak et. al, (2022). Using Ethnography in Psychological Research: Challenges and Opportunities. Buletin Psikologi. DOI: 10.22146/buletinpsikologi.56215