Migration to the Americas: Theories PDF

Globalization Migration to the Americas:theories A)​ Bering Land Bridge theory: This theory suggests that during the last ice age, a land connection called Beringia formed between Asia and North America because sea levels were lower. This allowed the early humans and animals to cros...

Globalization Migration to the Americas:theories A)​ Bering Land Bridge theory: This theory suggests that during the last ice age, a land connection called Beringia formed between Asia and North America because sea levels were lower. This allowed the early humans and animals to cross from one continent to the other. Evidence supporting theory: 1) Archeological sites: Discoveries of ancient tools (Clovis spear points) and human remains in North America suggest that people arrive during the ice age, aligning with the land bridge’s existence. 1)​ Genetic studies: Genetic similarities between Native Americans and ancient populations, and Siberia support the idea of migration across the land bridge. Evidence against theory: 1)​ Timing issues: Some archeological findings suggest that people may have arrived in the Americas earlier than the land bridge was available, challenging the timeline. B) Coastal migration theory: This theory proposes the early humans reached the Americas by travelling along the coast in boats rather than crossing the bering land bridge. This suggests how Maritime travel might have helped them settle in the continent earlier and more places. Evidence supporting theory: 1)​ Archeological sites: Discoveries of ancient tools and remains in coastal sites, like monte verde in Chile, suggest early humans were present along the coasts. 2)​ Geological data: Sea level changes during the ice age would have created practical coastal roots for migration. Evidence against theory: 1)​ Genetic evidence: Studies of ancient DNA show that early people in North America had different lineages, hinting that they came from various places instead of all following the same coastal route C) Pacific route theory: This theory proposes the early humans migrated to the Americas, using canoes to travel along the Pacific. They sailed from Asia to the Pacific Islands, and then to the western coast of north and South America. Evidence supporting theory: 1)​ Archeological finds: Coastal sites in the Pacific show early human activity, and possible building techniques that could allow long distance travel. Evidence against theory: 1) Timing issues: Human arrival in the Americas align with the Bering land bridge theory, not Pacific Crossings. 2)​ Oceanic challenges: Early humans locked the navigation skills for such a vast and dangerous journey. Aboriginal societies before contact: characteristics of aboriginal cultures: Animism: Many aboriginal cultures believe that all elements of nature (plants, water, rocks) possess a spirit of life force. This worldview fosters respect for the environment. Connection of nature: There is a sincere relationship with the land, which is seen as a living being. Nature is not just a resource, it was a source of identity, culture, and spirituality for the aboriginals. No ownership of land: Land is often viewed as a communal resource rather than an object or material to be owed. It is held in trust for future generations, emphasizing guardianship of all individuals in the land. Three reasons for colonization: Gospel: European powers pursued in spreading Christianity, viewing it as their duty to convert indigenous people. Missionaries played a significant role in this aspect, believing they were saving souls and civilizing Dawn Christian societies. Gold: Wealth was a major drive for colonization. European nations searched for new resources, trade roots and wealth, through the exploitation of land and indigenous populations. This included the extraction of precious metals, agricultural products and other valuable materials. Glory: Colonization was also driven by the desire for national power. European nations competed for dominance, viewing territorial expansion as a way to enhance their status in military strength on the global stage. Effects of contact: on Europeans 1) New foods: Coffee, potatoes, peppers, and sugar were introduced. This encouraged Europeans to adapt to more agricultural techniques. 3)​ New medical knowledge: Europeans learned native cures for diseases, like scurvy, which had limited exploration. 4)​ Government structure: Europeans borrowed principles from aboriginal governments, further establishing a government that disregarded aboriginal land rights. Which the government leader ended to simulate aboriginal people in European cultures, promoting reconciliation, and recognition of indigenous rights. Effects of contact: all aboriginals: 1)​ Diseases: Aboriginals were exposed to European diseases 9smallpox, measles) and had no immunity. Diseases that were minor for Europeans destroyed aboriginal populations. 2)​ Dependence: Aboriginals became used to European products like guns, woven cloth, and metal tools. Europeans depleted their resources (fur) to trade and aboriginals lost their traditional ways. 3)​ Loss of culture: Europeans Christianized the aboriginals, sometimes by force and taught them European languages. 4)​ Improved agriculture and transportation: Horses revolutionized hunting on the plains. Cattle, oxen, sheep and pigs, provided new resources of food and power. WWI: effects on Canada: 1)​ Relationship with Great Britain: Before World War I, Canada was tied in with the British quality acting as its shadow. The war made Canada independent as it started acting on its own international matters. 2)​ World status: Canada came out of the war with a better reputation globally. It took part in the Paris conference and joined the league of nations, proving it was more than a British colony. 3)​ Women’s rights: The war brought many women into the workforce, taking on male traditional rules which advanced women’s suffrage movement, leading to the right to vote in federal elections in 1918. 4)​ Canadian identity: The war strengthened Canadian nationalism as soldiers fought together. This created a collective identity apart from British colonial ties. WW1: Mania M-militarism: Countries were afraid of being attacked by rivals, so they raced to build strong armies. A-alliances: Countries made secret agreements to help each other in case of attack. If a count was attacked, it all had to jump in. N-nationalism: Countries believe they were superior and had the right to dominate other countries. I-imperialism: Major European countries like England and Germany had colonies overseas that they wanted to protect. A-assassination: Franz Ferdnand, an Austrian archduke, was assassinated. This touched a series of events that quickly led to war. Slavery: The Atlantic slave trade was when millions of Africans were taken to the Americas between the 15th and 19th centuries to work as slaves. European countries needed workers for their growing colonies in the Americas, so they captured Africans through wars and trade. These people were shipped across the ocean in terrible conditions, known as the "Middle Passage," and many died along the way. Once in the Americas, they were forced to work on farms and in mines to help build the economy of the colonies. As the colonies grew, they needed more labor to produce crops like sugar, tobacco, and cotton. The slave trade hurt African societies deeply and left a lasting impact on racism and inequality that still affects people today. Sovereignty: Types of sovereignty: 1 bonus definition 1.​ Legal sovereignty: The power of a state to create and enforce laws. 2.​ Constitutional sovereignty: Authority based on a constitution that defines government powers. 3.​ Territorial sovereignty: Control estate has over its geographic area and resources. 4.​ Popular sovereignty: Government authority obtained from the consent of the people.  5.​ Economic sovereignty: A state ability to manage its own economic policies and resources. 6.​ Judicial Sovereignty: Independence estates system to enforce laws without outside influence. 7.​ International recognition: Acknowledgement by other states of state’s sovereignty and legitimacy. Russia’s motives for invading Ukraine: 1)​ Strategic motives: Russia wants to boost its influence in Eastern Europe and sees Ukraine as key to countering NATO growth. 2)​ Economic motives Ukraine has valuable resources and key energy pipelines, which Russia wants to control to strengthen its economy. 3)​ Political motives: Russia wants to assert its power and prevent Ukraine from fully aligning in the west, aiming to preserve its influence over former Soviet states. Describe three situations where an empire, disintegrates, leading to sovereignty struggles: 1)​ Soviet union: USSR (union of Soviet socialist republic) collapsed in 1991, countries like Ukraine, and the Baltic states fought for independence, facing both internal challenges and outside pressures. 2)​ Ottoman Empire: After World War I, the Ottoman Empire disintegration led to new nations in the Middle East, sparking conflicts over borders and ethnic identities, especially Iraq and Syria. 3)​ Austro-Hungarian Empire: its break up after World War I created a power vacuum in central Europe, leading to new nations which struggled with ethnic tensions and sovereignty issues. Parallels between troubles in Ireland and the situation in Ukraine: 1)​ Identity issues: Both conflicts come from deep divisions, Irish nationalist versus unionists in Ireland, and Ukraine versus Russia, identities in Ukraine, with each group's quest for sovereignty. 2)​ Violence: Both situations have involved significant violence, the troubles in Ireland featured rebel actions, and Ukraine has seen armed conflicts since Russia’s occupation of Crimea. 3)​ Community divisions: Both situations created deep divisions within communities, leading to social and political divisions based on identity. Three sovereignty struggles Canada, Ireland, Ukraine and Palestine have in common: 1)​ Colonial Legacy: All 4 countries have faced colonization and occupation. Indigenous rights in Canada, British rule in Ireland, Russian influence in Ukraine and the Israeli Palestinian conflict all reflect long lasting impacts of external powers on national identity and governance. 2)​ Cultural identity: All 4 Countries strived to preserve their languages, traditions, and cultural heritage against external pressures.  3)​ Political challenges: All 4 countries faced political hurdles for sovereignty. These include negotiations for autonomy, international recognition, and discriminatory laws that undermine their rights to self-determination. In what ways did Canada gain sovereignty as a result of World War I? Canada gained sovereignty after World War I in a few ways. Canada took on military decisions independently, showing it could fight without relying on Britain. The war boosted Canadian nationalism, helping to shape a distinct identity. Canada also participated in international organizations like the League of Nations, Canada is fully independent, having gained control over its laws, military decisions, and constitution, most notably through the Statute of Westminster in 1931 and the Constitution Act of 1982. How did Quebec gain sovereignty within Canada as a result of the 1970 October crisis? After the 1970 October crisis, Quebec's push for sovereignty picked up immensely. The crisis had people talking more about nationalism and independence. The October crisis also led to better discussions about Quebec power within Canada, which put more focus on recognizing Quebec’s unique culture, and language, strengthening its identity. Do you think that using the War Measures Act during the October Crisis was justified? Why or why not? The War Measures Act was justified to some extent as it addressed the serious threat posed by the FLQ, whose violent acts included kidnappings and the murder of a government official. However, it led to mass arrests and the suspension of civil liberties, which many argue was an excessive and undemocratic response. Demographics is a factor in many struggles for sovereignty. How is this true in Ukraine and Palestine? In Ukraine, regions with large ethnic Russian populations, like Crimea, have fueled separatist movements and justified Russian interventions. In Palestine, the distribution of Jewish and Palestinian populations, including Israeli settlements and densely populated Palestinian areas, impacts land disputes and sovereignty claims. Comparison of issues in Palestine and India: Both conflicts are rooted and strong national identities, Palestinians are seeking statehood, and there is division between Hindus and Muslims in India. They both have roots in colonialism, with British rule creating tensions. Both conflicts faced harsh violence, and displacement, mass migration during India’s partition, and the ongoing struggles in Palestine. Sovereignty issues in Canada that still exist today Canada is facing several sovereignty challenges today. Indigenous groups are demanding greater control over their traditional lens and self governance. In Quebec, a push for more independence clashes with national unity, leading to all going debates about language, culture, and self-determination. There’s also economic pressures between provinces like Alberta and British Columbia, which leads to tensions over how resources are managed. These issues highlight questions about identity, and the balance of power within the country. Palestine and the Indo-pak separation: Colonial rule: Both regions had colonial rule that increased tensions. In India, British policies worsen conflicts between Hindus and Muslims, while in Palestine, British mandate policies increase struggles between Arabs. National identity: Strong national identities develop in both cases. In India, this led to a demand for Pakistan, while Palestinians are still seeking their own state. Violence and displacement: Both situations have involved significant violence and displacement. India’s partition caused mass violence, similar to the ongoing violence to the Israeli Palestinian conflict. Governance: The American Revolution: (1775–1783) was a conflict where the thirteen colonies fought to gain independence from British rule. It was driven by grievances like “taxation without representation” and British interference in colonial affairs. The war ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1783, which recognized the United States as an independent nation. Three causes of the American revolution: 1)​ High taxes: Britain made the colonies pay heavy taxes on things like tea and paper, however, the colonies had no say in these decisions, making the people angry. 2)​ No representation: The colonies did not have representatives in the British government to speak up for them, which they thought was unfair. 3)​ Desire for independence: Many colonists wanted to make their own laws and decisions instead of being controlled by Britain. Chapter 13: France and the Ancien Régime: The Ancien Régime in France was marked by a rigid social hierarchy with three estates: clergy, nobility, and commoners. The monarchy held absolute power, reinforced by divine right, while commoners bore the brunt of taxation and labor. This inequality created deep social unrest, eventually leading to the French Revolution in 1789. The Seigneurial System: The seigneurial system in New France distributed land to seigneurs, who, in turn, leased it to tenant farmers. This system promoted settlement, agricultural development, and a sense of hierarchy in the colony. However, it often created social tensions due to the unequal distribution of wealth and labor. England and the Evolution of Government: England’s government transitioned from feudalism to constitutional monarchy over several centuries. The Magna Carta (1215) limited the king’s authority, and the Glorious Revolution (1688) cemented parliamentary supremacy. These events established the foundation for a system balancing royal power and parliamentary governance. The Mayflower Compact: The Mayflower Compact of 1620 was a pioneering agreement among Pilgrims to establish self-governance in the Plymouth Colony. It emphasized majority rule and collective decision-making, setting a precedent for later democratic practices in America. This compact reflected the settlers’ commitment to creating a functional and unified community. Who were allowed to vote in the mayflower compact: All resident landowners (white males) were eligible to vote. The Loyalist Legacy Loyalists, who supported Britain during the American Revolution, faced persecution and often fled to Canada or other British territories. Their migration significantly shaped Canadian society, contributing to its bilingual and multicultural identity. The Loyalist experience also highlighted divisions within colonial America over independence. English and France government comparison: France was an absolute monarchy, ruled under the rise of kings with minimal constraints, England had a constitutional monarchy after the glorious revolution which limited royal power in the established department limit as a primary legislative body. Aboriginal government structure: 1.Traditional governance: It’s based on cultural laws and customs, with elders guiding the community, decisions made collectively, and justice focusing on restoring harmony through community involvement. It emphasizes respect for kinship systems, spiritual connections, and maintaining balance within the environment. 2.Modern governance: Involves councils or elected leaders who manage local issues like education, healthcare, and housing, often working within national legal frameworks to support the community. These systems also advocate for the recognition of Indigenous rights and equitable access to resources. 3.Challenges: Include discrimination and limited funding, but opportunities lie in greater recognition of rights, self-determination, and reconciliation efforts to empower Aboriginal communities. Growing partnerships with governments and organizations are creating pathways for sustainable growth and development. Chapter 23: summary The rule of law means everyone should be treated equally by the law, but some believe wealth and power can create unfair treatment. The court system makes sure laws are followed fairly, with judges needing to be unbiased. Canada’s legal system combines British common law and French civil law, influenced by the Napoleonic Code and Roman law. Criminal law deals with crimes that affect society, while civil law handles personal disagreements. Before Europeans arrived, First Nations had their own legal systems based on community decisions. Some Indigenous groups use sentencing circles to focus on healing and fixing behavior, rather than just punishment. Aboriginal people are more likely to be imprisoned, and the system could benefit from more Aboriginal lawyers and officers. Canada’s legal system is based on important principles like the right to a fair trial, being innocent until proven guilty, and everyone being treated equally. Justice: Charter of rights and freedoms: The Charter of Rights and Freedoms is a part of Canada’s Constitution, enacted in 1982, that protects the fundamental rights and freedoms of all Canadians. It includes rights such as freedom of expression, equality under the law, and protection against discrimination. The charter ensures these rights are upheld while balancing them with the public interest and democratic principles. 5 rights apart of the charter: 1.​ Freedom of expression: Allows individuals to express their opinions and ideas without government interference or censorship. 2.​ Right to vote: Gives citizens the ability to participate in elections and have a say in the government. 3.​ Equality rights: Ensures that all people are treated fairly and equally, without discrimination based on race, gender, or other characteristics. 4.​ Freedom of religion: Guarantees individuals the right to practice any religion or none at all, without interference from the government. 5.​ Legal rights: Protects individuals’ fair treatment under the law, including the right to a fair trial and protection from unfair detention. Case studies: 1. The Bail Process in Canada After an arrest, if the accused is not released by police, they must appear before a judge or justice of the peace for a bail hearing within 24 hours. The judge decides whether to release the accused, considering public safety, and whether the person will attend court. Bail conditions, such as curfews or travel restrictions, may be imposed, and a surety (someone who supervises the accused) may be required. 2. The Arrest Process in Canada Police can arrest someone if they have reasonable grounds to believe the person committed a crime, or under a warrant issued by a judge. The arrested person must be informed of their rights under the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, including the right to remain silent and to speak with a lawyer. They are then taken to a police station for booking, where charges are formalized, and a decision is made about release or holding them for a bail hearing. 3. A Timely Trial in Canada The right to a timely trial is guaranteed under Section 11(b) of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, ensuring cases are resolved without unreasonable delays. Delays over 18 months in provincial court or 30 months in superior court are typically considered unreasonable. If delays exceed these limits without exceptional circumstances, charges may be dismissed to protect the accused’s rights. Oakes test: Under what circumstances can a person's rights under the Canadian charter of rights and freedoms be infringed? A person’s right under the Canadian charter of rights and freedoms can only be limited in certain cases. the government can restrict these rights when necessary for significant reasons like public safety, and security limitations must be reasonable and justifiable. The courts have to ensure that the infringement is as minimal as possible and make sure the government has a justified reason for it. This is guided by the first section of the charter, allowing ways to be limited under certain conditions. Two chambers of Canada’s Parliament: 1.​ The house of commons: It is made up of members of parliament, who are elected by the people. They debate and vote on new laws before they become official. 2.​ The Senate: It is made up of senators who are appointed, they review the laws passed by the house of commons before they become official to ensure the laws are fair and work well. What are 2 remedies that may be ordered if a person’s charter rights have been infringed? 1.​ Changing the law or action that caused the violation to prevent it from happening again. 2.​ Awarding compensation to the person whose rights were violated. *The purpose of these remedies are to protect rights and ensure fairness.* Why does the government have to justify limiting an individual's rights? Because rights are important for fairness, freedom, and equality. Limiting them can harm people, so the government must prove it’s significant to protect others, keep people safe and maintain order. This ensures the government doesn’t take away rights without a good reason. Describe a situation where you think infringement of a person's rights would be justified. It will be justified if it is necessary to protect public safety. Limiting someone’s freedom of expression could be allowed if they are spreading hate speech that includes violence. Protecting others from harm is more important than allowing hate speech. The government must show that the limit is reasonable and necessary in order to ensure everyone is protected. How does section one of the charter of rights and freedoms both limit and protect individual rights? The first section allows the government to limit individual rights, only if it’s justified in a free in democratic society. Rights can be restricted for reasons like public safety and protecting others rights. The government must prove that the restriction is necessary and not too harsh, ensuring limits on rights are fair and balanced, rather than unfair. Labour justice: Labor justice ensures fairness in the workplace by protecting workers’ rights, promoting fair wages, safe conditions, and preventing exploitation or discrimination. Trade Unions: Trade unions are organizations formed by workers to collectively negotiate for better wages, benefits, and working conditions. They represent workers in discussions with employers, advocating for their rights and supporting them in disputes. Workers’ Rights Improved by Trade Unions: Trade unions have played a key role in securing fair wages and improving working conditions through collective bargaining. They have helped establish labour standards such as safe working environments, reasonable work hours, and access to benefits like healthcare and pensions. Unions have also been crucial in gaining protections against unfair dismissal and fighting for anti-discrimination laws in the workplace. These efforts have greatly enhanced workers’ rights and ensured greater job security and equality. Women’s rights: Quebec was the last province in Canada to grant women the right to vote in provincial elections, which was finally achieved in 1940 after decades of opposition from the Catholic Church and conservative politicians like Premier Maurice Duplessis. Activists, notably the Provincial Franchise Committee, fought for women’s suffrage through petitions, speeches, and media campaigns, ultimately leading to the passing of the law by Premier Adélard Godbout. This victory not only enabled women to vote but also inspired future feminist movements, resulting in greater political participation and progress in areas like education, jobs, and healthcare. Nellie McClung was a writer, politician, and activist who played a crucial role in the fight for women’s suffrage in Canada, helping Manitoba become the first province to grant women the vote in 1916. She was also a key figure in the Persons Case of 1929, which legally recognized women as “persons” and allowed them to be appointed to the Senate. McClung’s legacy continues today, with statues, schools, and streets named after her, and her image on the Canadian $50 bill, as a tribute to her ongoing impact on gender equality. YCJA: Youth criminal: Is a person who is 12 to 17 years old and is charged with an offence under the current youth criminal justice act. Young offender: A person aged 12 to 17 who was charged with an offence under the previous young offenders act. Juvenile delinquent: A young person from the age of seven or older, who is charged as a young offender or youth criminal under the historic juvenile delinquents act. The Juvenile Delinquents Act (1908) was Canada’s first law specifically addressing youth crime, treating young offenders as “delinquents” and focusing on welfare through institutions like reformatories. (No distinction between adults and children) The Young Offenders Act (1984) replaced it, offering a more structured legal framework for youth, emphasizing rehabilitation but criticized for being too lenient. Criticism of the Young offenders act included: -​ Being too soft on young offenders -​ Not properly addressing serious and violent offences -​ Lacking a clear philosophy on youth Justice The Youth Criminal Justice Act (2003) replaced the Young Offenders Act, aiming to balance rehabilitation with accountability, reducing reliance on incarceration and focusing on restorative justice. Goals in the Youth Criminal Justice Act: -​ Prevent crimes -​ Rehabilitate youth -​ Ensure meaningful consequences -​ Protect the public Key changes: -​ Age a criminal could be tried as an adult for serious crimes (ages 14+) -​ Adult sentences can be imposed on youth for violent crimes, offenders names are to be published. -​ More emphasis on alternative sentencing options for minor and nonviolent offences. -​ Focus on community supervision and reintegration after custody. Diversion programs: -​ Extrajudicial measures: Community programs for first time, nonviolent offenders. -​ Extrajudicial sanctions: More serious punishments that do not create a criminal record; also avoids a trial. These include: counseling, education, programs, community service, official apologies, social skills, improvement, and charitable donations, or personal service Maximum Sentence for a Young Offender: -The maximum sentence for a young offender is 10 years for serious crimes such as murder, with different lengths of time for lesser offenses. Three Sentences, Other Than Custody, That a Judge Might Give a Young Offender: 1.​ -Probation 2.​ -Community service 3.​ -Following a curfew 4.​ -Staying away from public areas 5.​ -Not using alcohol or drugs What is probation? List three conditions that might apply to probation. Probation is a sentence where a young offender serves their time in the community under supervision rather than in custody. ​ Three conditions might include: 1.​ -Reporting regularly to a probation officer. 2.​ -Not contacting victims or engaging in criminal activity. 3.​ -Attending counseling or educational programs as directed. Arrest and detention: -​ You have special protections under section 25 of the charter. -​ Must legal rights in the language the youth understands -​ You have a right to lawyer and to have a parent or guardian present during questioning -​ Arrest focuses more on ensuring the youth understand the process and their rights. Searches: Police can search a youth if they believe the youth has drugs, alcohol, or a weapon during an arrest. School officials can also search a student if they have reasonable grounds, like credible information or observations. Detention and bail: Youths have similar bail rights to adults but with stricter conditions, such as curfews, adult supervision, or no contact with victims and certain peers. If granted bail, a surety typically posts the bail and supervises the young offender until their trial, while those considered dangerous may be placed in foster care or another supervised home. Trial procedure: In a trial for young offenders, their names are generally not publicized to protect their privacy and prevent potential harm to their future. Unlike adults, young offenders are subject to different laws under the Youth Criminal Justice Act, which focuses on rehabilitation rather than punishment. The maximum sentence a young offender can receive is 10 years, which is significantly lower than the potential sentences for adults committing similar crimes. The three youth sentencing principles are: 1.​ Hold youth accountable for their actions, ensuring they take responsibility for their behavior. 2.​ Consider the needs and concerns of victims, ensuring justice is served for those affected by the crime. 3.​ Focus on rehabilitating and reintegrating youth into society while also protecting society from future harm. Custody as a last resort: types of custody: Open custody is for youth who are considered less dangerous and can participate in rehabilitation programs in a community-based facility with more freedom. Secure custody is for youth who are deemed more dangerous and require close supervision in a highly controlled environment, such as a detention center. Environmental racism: Environmental racism is when marginalized communities, like Indigenous or low-income groups, are unfairly exposed to environmental hazards due to discriminatory policies or practices. The Site C Dam in British Columbia has been controversial, especially among Indigenous groups, as it affects their traditional lands and way of life. People are against it because it will flood large areas, displacing communities and causing environmental damage, and they argue that the project is too expensive and not justified economically. Additionally, critics believe it violates Indigenous rights by failing to properly consult affected communities, and many feel that renewable alternatives could provide a more sustainable solution.