Music Fundamentals PDF

# Introduction ## The Materials of Music: Sound and Time ### Topics * Sound * Vibration * Compression * Rarefaction * Tone * Intensity * Acoustics * Decibels * Duration * Beat * Rhythm * Timbre * Partials * Harmonic Series * Fundamental * Meter...

# Introduction ## The Materials of Music: Sound and Time ### Topics * Sound * Vibration * Compression * Rarefaction * Tone * Intensity * Acoustics * Decibels * Duration * Beat * Rhythm * Timbre * Partials * Harmonic Series * Fundamental * Meter The basic materials of music are sound and time. When you play an instrument or sing, you are producing sounds, so it is important that you thoroughly understand these basic materials. Sounds are used to structure time in music. Time occurs in the duration of the sounds and the silences between sounds. This book is devoted to a study of the complex relationship between these two basic materials. ### Sound Sound is the sensation perceived by the organs of hearing when vibrations (sound waves) reach the ear. ### Vibration Vibration is the periodic motion of a substance. When you play an instrument, parts of the instrument (the strings, sounding board, etc.) and the air inside and around the instrument vibrate. ### Compression and Rarefaction These terms refer to the alternation of increased (compression) and decreased (rarefaction) pressure in the air caused by an activated (vibrating) surface or air column. One complete cycle of compression and rarefaction produces a vibration, or sound wave. * Compression (increased air pressure) + * Rarefaction (decreased air pressure) – ## The Four Properties of Sound * **Frequency:** Refers to the number of compression-rarefaction cycles that occur per unit of time, usually one second. Audible sounds for the human ear range from 20 to 20,000 cycles per second. * **Pitch**: Is the highness or lowness of a sound. Variations in frequency are what we hear as variations in pitch: The greater the number of sound waves produced per second of an elastic body, the higher the sound we hear; the fewer sound waves per second, the lower the sound. A tone is a musical sound of definite pitch. * **Intensity:** (amplitude) is heard as the loudness or softness of a pitch. In acoustics (the science of sound), intensity is the amount of energy affecting the vibrating body, and the physicist measures intensity on a scale from 0 to 130 in units called decibels. In musical notation, gradations of intensity are indicated with the following Italian words and their abbreviations: | Italian Word | Symbol | Translation | Average Decibels | |---|---|---|---| | Pianissimo | pp | Very soft | 40 | | Piano | p | Soft | 50 | | Mezzo piano | mp | Moderately soft | 60 | | Mezzo forte | mf | Moderately loud | 70 | | Forte | f | Loud | 80 | | Fortissimo | ff | Very loud | 100 | * **Duration**: Is the length of time a pitch, or tone, is sounded. For patterns of duration, the following terms are used: meter and rhythm. * **Meter:** Describes regularly recurring pulses of equal duration, generally grouped into patterns of two, three, four, or more with one of the pulses in each group accented. These patterns of strong (>) and weak (✔) pulses are called beats. For example: * Duple meter: > ~_> ~-> ~_ = * Triple meter: >~~_>~~-> ~ ~ _ = * **Rhythm:** Operating in conjunction with the meter, rhythm is a pattern of uneven durations. While the steady beats of the meter combine to form measures, a rhythm may be a pattern of almost any length. ## Timbre Timbre is the tone quality or color of a sound. It is the property of sound that permits us, for instance, to distinguish the difference between the sound of a clarinet and an oboe. This sound quality is determined by the shape of the vibrating body, its material (metal, wood, human tissue), and the method used to put it in motion (striking, bowing, blowing, plucking). It is also the result of the human ear's perception of a series of tones called the harmonic series, which is produced by all instruments. ## Harmonic Series A harmonic series includes the various pitches produced simultaneously by a vibrating body. This physical phenomenon results because the body vibrates in sections as well as in a single unit. A string, for example, vibrates along its entire length as well as in halves, thirds, quarters, and so on. ## Partials The pitches produced simultaneously by the vibrating sections are called partials or harmonics. The first partial, often called the fundamental, and the series of partials constitute a musical tone. Since the fundamental is the lowest frequency and is also perceived as the loudest, the ear identifies it as the specific pitch of the musical tone. Although the harmonic series theoretically goes to infinity, there are practical limits; the human ear is insensitive to frequencies above 20,000 Hz. (Hz is the abbreviation for hertz, a standard measurement of frequency expressed in cycles per second.) The following illustration carries the harmonic series of an A fundamental to the sixteenth partial. ## Summary Music is an art of sound and time, and the basic characteristics of musical tone-pitch, duration, intensity, and timbre-are the fundamental elements. The principal concern in this book will be to determine how musical tones interact with each other to produce music. # Part A: The Fundamentals of Music Before you begin your study of the structure of music, you must first understand the notation and basic elements of music: the fundamentals of music. As an experienced musician, you have probably learned many of these concepts in your previous studies. Our purpose here is to present these basic musical facts in a systematic way to aid you in gaining fluency and filling any gaps in your knowledge. Even if you know the materials presented here, we urge you to take this opportunity to practice until you can recall the fundamentals without a moment of hesitation. Your success in understanding the structure of music will depend on this ability. Our goal in this and the following book is to show you how music is put together. We will deal with a wide variety of music from very early to the most recent, from art music to folk and popular music. As a prelude to this adventure, you must understand in broad terms the history of Western music and see the relationships among the various styles. For this reason we have included a brief overview of music history in Appendix D. We wish you success in your work and hope that you find here the beginning of a lifetime of exciting and serious study of the art of music. # Chapter 1: Notation ## Topics * Pitch * Staff * Letter Names * Clefs * Treble Clef * Bass Clef * Grand Staff * Middle C * Ledger Lines * C Clef * Alto Clef * Tenor Clef * Soprano Clef * Mezzo Soprano Clef * Baritone Clef * Octave Identification * Accidentals * Sharp * Flat * Natural * Double Sharp * Double Flat * Interval * Enharmonic Equivalents * Half-Step Motion * Duration * Breve and Rest * Whole Note and Rest * Half Note and Rest * Quarter Note and Rest * Eighth Note and Rest * Sixteenth Note and Rest * Thirty-Second Note and Rest * Sixty-Fourth Note and Rest * Tie * Dot * Second Dot * Irregular Divisions and Subdivisions * Rhythm * Pulse or Beat * Meter * Meter Signatures * Simple Meter * Compound Meter * Duple, Triple, and Quadruple Meters * Asymmetrical Meter * Syncopation * Dynamic Markings ## Important Concepts Music notation is much more precise and complicated than written language. When we notate music, we use symbols that show three of the four properties of sound described in the introduction: pitch and duration are given accurately, and relative intensity is indicated. Furthermore, pitch and duration are shown simultaneously. ### Notation of Pitch The term pitch describes the highness or lowness (the frequency) of a tone. In music notation, pitches are represented by symbols positioned on a staff and identified with letter names. ### The Staff The staff consists of five equally spaced horizontal lines. ## The Clefs A clef is a symbol placed at the beginning of a line of music that establishes the letter names of the lines and spaces of the staff. ### Treble Clef (G) The treble clef or G clef is an ornate letter G. The curved line terminates at the second line of the staff, thus designating the letter name of a note on that line as G. ### Bass Clef (F) The bass clef is called the F clef because it was derived from the letter F. The dots are placed above and below the fourth line of the staff, designating that line as F. ### Grand Staff Together, the treble and bass staves make up a grand staff. Figure 1.5 shows the point at which both clefs converge. The two Cs are the same pitch: middle C. ## Ledger Lines Pitches that go beyond the limits of the staff are written by adding ledger lines above or below the staff. Ledger lines, which parallel the staff, accommodate only one note (see Figure 1.7). ## C Clef A C clef may be positioned on any line of the staff to designate middle C. This clef is coupled with a set of secondary names that identify each of the possible positions (see Figure 1.8). ## Octave Identification Since the pitch spectrum is so wide, it is often necessary to identify a specific note by the octave in which it appears. Thus, middle C is distinguished from any other C in the pitch spectrum by the written designation C4 (see Figure 1.9). ## Accidentals Accidentals are symbols that are placed to the left of the noteheads to indicate the raising or lowering of a pitch. * Sharp (#) - raises the pitch a half step. * Flat (b) - lowers the pitch a half step. * Natural () - cancels any previous sharp or flat and returns to the natural, or unaltered, pitch. * Double Sharp (x) - raises the pitch two half steps. * Double Flat (b) - lowers the pitch two half steps. ## Interval An interval is the relationship between two tones. In Western music, the half step is the smallest interval used. It is the interval between any two adjacent keys-black or white-on the keyboard. ## Enharmonic Equivalents Enharmonic equivalents are tones that have the same pitch but different letter names. ## Half-Step Motion In passages of music involving half-step motion, a flatted note is followed most often by a note with a different letter name a half step lower. A sharped note is followed most often by a note with a different letter name a half step higher in passages involving half-step motion. ## Notation of Duration The notation of duration is illustrated in the following chart: | Name | Note | Rest | Equivalents | |---|---|---|---| | Breve (Double Whole Note) | | | Two Whole Notes | | Whole Note | | | Two Half Notes | | Half Note | | | Two Quarter Notes | | Quarter Note | | | Two Eighth Notes | | Eighth Note | | | Two Sixteenth Notes | | Sixteenth Note | | | Two Thirty-second Notes | | Thirty-second Note | | | Two Sixty-fourth Notes | | Sixty-fourth Note | | | Two One Hundred Twenty-eighth Notes | ### The Tie The tie is a curved line that connects two adjacent notes of the same pitch into a single sound with a duration equal to the sum of both note values. ### The Dot Placed to the right of a note head, the dot lengthens the value of the note by half again its value. A second dot lengthens the dotted note value by half the length of the first dot. Dots may also be used with rests and affect them in the same way. ### Irregular Division of Notes A note value may be divided or subdivided into any number of equal parts, as shown in the chart in Figure 1.20. Those divisions and subdivisions that require added numbers are called irregular divisions and subdivisions. ## Rhythm Rhythm is a general term used to describe the motion of music in time. The fundamental unit of rhythm is the pulse or beat. Even persons untrained in music generally sense the pulse and may respond by tapping a foot or clapping. ### Meter Signatures Meter can be defined as a regular, recurring pattern of strong and weak beats. This recurring pattern of durations is identified at the beginning of a composition by a meter signature (time signature). ### Simple Meter In simple meter, each beat is divided in two parts (simple division). The upper numbers in simple meter signatures are usually 2, 3, or 4 indicating two, three, or four basic pulses. Some simple meters showing the division of the beat are shown in Figure 1.23. ### Compound Meter In compound meter, each pulse is a dotted note, which is divided into groups of three parts (compound division). The upper numbers in compound meter signatures are usually 6, 9, and 12. In compound meter signatures, the lower number refers to the division of the beat, whereas the upper number indicates the number of these divisions per measure. ### Duple, Triple, and Quadruple Meters Both simple and compound meters will have two, three, or four recurring pulses. Meters are identified as duple if there are two basic pulses, triple if there are three, or quadruple if there are four. These designations are often combined with the division names to describe a meter. For example, 2 is a "simple duple" meter and g is a "compound duple" meter. ### Asymmetrical Meters The term asymmetrical means "not symmetrical" and applies to those meter signatures that indicate the pulse cannot be divided into equal groups of 2, 3, or 4 beats. The upper numbers in asymmetrical meters are usually 5 or 7. ### Syncopation If a part of the measure that is usually unstressed is accented, the rhythm is considered to be syncopated. ## Dynamic Markings Dynamic markings indicate the general volume (amplitude) of sound. Although imprecise, such marks denote approximate levels of intensity. The following words, abbreviations, and signs are common: | Symbol | Term | Definition | |---|---|---| | pp | Pianissimo | Very soft | | p | Piano | Soft | | mp | Mezzo piano | Moderately soft | | mf | Mezzo forte | Moderately loud | | f | Forte| Loud | | ff | Fortissimo | Very loud | | cresc. | Crescendo | Gradually become louder | | decresc., dim.| Decrescendo | Gradually become softer | | sfz, sf | Sforzando | Sudden accent on a single note or chord | | $fp | Sforzando piano | Sudden accent followed immediately by soft | | fp | Fortepiano | Loud followed immediately by soft | ## History The notation of both pitch and duration has evolved over the centuries. It has been a gradual process of transformation that continues yet today. ### Neumatic Notation From about 650 to 1200, music notation consisted of a set of symbols called neumes (pronounced "newms"). These symbols took their name from the Greek word forgesture. Written above the Latin texts associated with the liturgy of the Christian church, neumes could not convey pitch or duration, but rather served as a memory aid in recalling previously learned melodic lines. Figure 1.31 is an example of neumatic notation from a twelfth-century manuscript. ### Mensural Notation Mensural (measured) notation, a system that included durational values as well as pitch, developed during the thirteenth century as the single melody and free rhythm of Gregorian chant or plainsong gave way to measured music that included parts, descant, and, later, harmony and counterpoint. ## Present Notation Our present system of notation evolved from thirteenth-century practices. A treatise on mensural notation, De Musica Mensurabili (Ars Cantus Mensurabilis), by Franco of Cologne (active 1250–1280), contains the fundamental rules of modern notation. Our notation system has developed gradually since the thirteenth century, and graphic details such as the shape of notes and clefs have changed. New symbols have been (and continue to be) invented as needed to better communicate the growing complexity of music. ## Applications The following series of directions highlight rudimentary elements of modern-day music notation. Whether preparing a score by hand or with the assistance of music notation software, a thorough knowledge of these standardized practices will ensure that the notated music is represented correctly. ### Some Directions for Notation 1. Noteheads are oval in shape and positioned on the staff lines and spaces at a slight upward slant. Stems are thin, vertical lines that are directly connected to the head. The stems of single notes within the staff should be about one octave in length. 2. When a staff contains only a single melody, stems go down on those notes above the middle line and up on those notes below the middle line. When a note is on the middle line, the stem is usually down, except when the stems of adjacent notes are in the opposite direction. 3. When stemmed notes are placed on ledger lines, the stems should extend to the middle line of the staff. 4. When connected by beams, stemmed notes should be modified so that the beams are slanted to cross no more than one line of the staff for each group of notes. Beams are slightly thicker than note stems. 5. When two melodies occupy the same staff, the stems for one melody are up, and the stems for the other melody are down. This makes it possible to distinguish the melodies. 6. Beam groups of eighth notes (and smaller values) according to the beats in the measure. 7. In compound meter, it is important to show the basic pulse structure of the measure and the division (of three) as clearly as possible. 8. Use flags for eighth or shorter-value notes that are not grouped within a beat. 9. Connect no more than six notes by beams unless all are part of one beat. 10. Flagged and beamed notes are generally not mixed, except when notating vocal music. In vocal music, flagged notes have traditionally been used when the text-music relationship involves one note for each syllable. However, modern practice has moved toward the use of "instrumental" notation for vocal music. 11. Irregular divisions of a beat or measure are indicated by showing the number of notes in the resulting group by means of an Arabic numeral. The note values of the irregular group are notated the same way as the regular group, provided the number of notes in the irregular group is less than twice that of the regular. For example, a triplet retains the same note values as a regular duplet. 12. The whole rest can be used to indicate a full measure of rest in any meter. 13. Use two quarter rests rather than a half rest in & meter. 14. When notes of a chord are on an adjacent line and space, the higher of the two is always to the right, regardless of the direction of the stem. 15. When a dotted note is on a line, the dot is usually placed slightly above the line. When two separate voices are placed on a single staff, the dots are below the line on the notes with stems down. 16. Dynamic markings should be added above, between, or below staves according to the nature of the music or score: * **Instrumental Music:** The markings in instrumental music are usually placed beneath the staff to which they refer. Sometimes, because of inadequate space, it is necessary to place markings above the staff. * **Vocal Music:** Vocal music markings are usually placed above the staff to which they refer. This is done to avoid confusion with the words of the text. * **Piano Scores:** The markings in piano scores are placed between the staves if the markings are to apply to both staves. If markings are needed for each staff individually, the markings should go just above or below the staff to which they refer. Markings should not be placed on the staff, although the crescendo and diminuendo will protrude into the staff on occasion.