Post Independence Era: Jammu and Kashmir on the Path of ModerniSation PDF

Post Independence Era: Jammu and Kashmir on the path of ModerniSation In the chapters so far we have learnt about some of the processes and events that are critical to the understanding of the modern world. In this chapter we will shift our focus from global histories to the regional histo...

Post Independence Era: Jammu and Kashmir on the path of ModerniSation In the chapters so far we have learnt about some of the processes and events that are critical to the understanding of the modern world. In this chapter we will shift our focus from global histories to the regional history. In this context, the chapter would highlight economic and social changes that occurred in Jammu and Kashmir between 1947-1963. It traces the trajectory of governance, planned economy, state building, reforms in Agrarian, Education & Health Sectors and other developmental programmes that were initiated under the Naya Kashmir Manifesto. The chapter further shows how the developmental programs that were initiated under Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah were given a more practical shape when Bakshi Ghulam Muhammad took over the charge of the governance as the second Prime Minister (the term used for the head of the state till 1965) of Jammu and Kashmir. NAYA K ASHMIR MANIFESTO: AN IMPORTANT DOCUMENT NEW WORDS: On September 29, 1944, National Conference, the then most popular 1.Envisage- Foresee political party of the state, adopted the Naya Kashmir Manifesto in a meeting of the political activists of the party at Sopore. It was a 2.Socialist welfare state- A form of comprehensive plan for economic, social, political and cultural government in which the state reconstruction of the region. B.P.L Bedi was considered as the author protects the economic and social of the Manifesto. The Manifesto was divided into two parts-one well-being of its citizens dealing with the constitution of the state and the other with the national economic plan. It further envisaged the establishment of the councils for national education, cultural upliftment, women’s right, communication and health to ensure an equitable development of all the areas of the state. The National Economic Plan was the most significant part of the manifesto and had a heavy socialist tune. It advocated the socialization of all instruments of production and the reorganization of property relationships. When the constitution of Jammu and Kashmir was adopted on 17th November, 1956 during the Prime Ministership of Pri n t Cul t ure Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad, the Naya Kashmir Manifesto became the basis of the Directive Principles of State Policy. END OF DOGRA RULE AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF NEW GOVERNMENT After the accession of Jammu and Kashmir to the dominion of India, Maharaja Hari Singh appointed Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah,as the head of the Emergency administration on October 30, 1947. Sheikh Abdullah functioned as Chief Emergency Officer till 5th March, 1948 when the Maharaja 129  appointed him as the Prime Minister of the state. Sheikh grains in the region, the Government launched the Grow Mohammad Abdullah took oath on 25th, March 1948 More Food scheme to bring cultivable waste lands under and had the freedom to choose his colleagues in the cultivation by allotting land to the landless peasants. To cabinet.In June 1949, Maharaja Hari Singh handed his protect the interests of the tenants the new Government, powers to his son Yuvraj Karan Singh; who subsequently in Oct 1948, amended the State Tenancy Act of 1924. became the first Sadar-i-Riyasat of the State in 1952. The new Act came to be known as the Tenancy Amendment Act, 1948 and guaranteed the fixity of Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah’s regime promoted the tenure to the tenant and also fixed the maximum rent composite culture and secular Kashmiri identity that payable by him to the landlord. Furthermore, to alleviate existed in Kashmir from earlier times. The idea was to the distress of the poverty-stricken people, the state bridge the existing linguistic, religious and communitarian enacted the Distressed Debtors Relief Act of 1950 cleavage. to relieve them from indebtedness. For this purpose, five Meanwhile there came a paradigm shift in Sheikh Debt Conciliation Boards were appointed in the districts Abdullah’s political thinking. In the later years of his of Anantnag, Baramulla, Kathua, Jammu and Udhampur. rule,many of his speeches asserting self-determination This relieved the agriculturalists, artisans and the village for Jammu &Kashmir and his ties with some western menials of the burden of their accumulated debts. Diplomats created apprehensions within the Indian The most important phase of Land Reforms was Government. As such the Government of India started introduced in 1950 by passing of the Big Landed losing faith in Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah and as a Estates Abolition Act, 1950. Through this Act, result he was arrested in 1953 and imprisoned for a Landlordism in the State was abolished by transferring period of eleven years. There after, his Deputy Bakshi land to the tiller without giving any compensation to the Ghulam Muhammad became the next Prime minister in expropriator. This Act came to be called as the Magna 1953 which heralded the dawn of a new era in the history Carta of the peasant rights in the state and its most of Kashmir. important provisions were fixation of ceiling on the holding of proprietor at 182 Kanals (22.5 acres) and transfer of land to tillers with ownership rights. Sadar-i-Riyasat: In 1952, the NEW WORDS: Dogra’s hereditary position was abolished completely and was 1.Jagir: A land grant given by state to an individual in lieu of services; the individual held right to collect replaced by a Constitutional head of revenue from the land the state referred to as Sadar-i- 2.Muafis: A land grant exempted from payment of land Riyasat. Sadar-i-Riyasat was revenue, given by state to an individual or religious place. elected by the Constituent Assembly for a term of 5 years. 3.Mukraris: Fixed cash grants India and the Contemporary World 4. Chakdar: A native land tenant acting as intermediate in position between the proprietor and cultivator Under the Distressed Debtor’s Relief Act of 1950,debts PRIORITY OF THE NASCENT STATE of peasants amounting to Rs. 290 lakhs were settled and reduced to Rs. 98 lakhs only and 60 percent of the A. ECONOMIC REFORMS claims against the peasants were disposed of through conciliations. 1. LAND REFORMS: The new regime was too enthusiastic to translate its New Kashmir Manifesto into a reality. In 1948 the How far do you think the Big Landed Estates Government headed by Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah Abolition Act benefitted the agriculturist class? abolished Jagirs, Muafis and Mukararies [except those Collect information from some readily available granted to religious places] and discontinued the sources and jot it down in your note-book or abatement in land revenue given to the chakdars. In the scrap book. same year, to tackle the problem of the shortage of food 130 IMPACT OF LAND REFORMS in time. However, owing to the mismanagement and mal- administration, the Cooperatives could not contribute These land reforms ended the privileges of the landlords, much to revive the economy of the State. secured the position of the peasant and restored his confidence by making him the owner of the land. Visiting Jammu and Kashmir in mid-1950s, Daniel Thorner, an You have also studied about Cooperative Agrarian Historian and Economist, observed that despite Societies in your Economics text Book for certain defects in implementation, the land reforms class Xth. Name a few Cooperatives of programme succeeded in removing fear from the your region. peasantry. Land Reforms injected the elements of dynamism in the agricultural setting of the state and encouraged the peasant to make investments in land by making him the direct beneficiary of any such investments. STATE BUILDING POLICY: MAJOR The economic emancipation of the peasant paved way HIGHLIGHTS for his social advancement by motivating him to educate his children and avail facilities of better health and cultural In his determination to keep Jammu and Kashmir self- advancement. These reforms also aimed at reducing the sufficient, autonomous and financially independent, taxation which was the primary reason for the discontent Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah rarely accepted funds from among the masses during Maharaja’s period. the Government of India. However, there came a shift from the previous stand during Bakshi’s regime (1953- However, it is to be noted that the land reforms did not 1963) as his economic vision was different from that of do much in improving the conditions of landless laborers S. M. Abdullah‘s. He viewed economic integration with as the land appropriated from the landlords was India necessary to promote the overall aim of Naya distributed among the tillers of his estate. Kashmir Manifesto. Bakshi Ghulam Muhammad in The land reforms had far-reaching political consequences order to go forward with his modernizing agenda sought as well. On the one hand, it created an everlasting support financial aid from Government of India. base for Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah but on the other Thus, the Government of India provided Jammu hand these reforms antagonized the landlord class of the &Kashmir with loans to implement its state building society who launched a rigorous campaign against him. policy. In order to create economic betterment for 2. AGRICULTURAL EXPANSION: DEVELOPMENT peasants, workers and artisans, Bakshi Ghulam OF IRRIGATIONAL PROJECTS Mohammad was able to fulfil a number of developmental policies which were initially started under Sheikh The development of irrigation received impetus after Mohammad Abdullah. Thus, the state entered in the age 1950s. The government took concrete steps to tap water of large scale modernization including agricultural reforms, resources for irrigational purposes. A separate industrial development, infrastructural growth, tourism department of irrigation was established out of the Public and increased employment opportunities. Introduction Works Development Organization. Irrigation was of modern irrigation techniques like lift irrigation, given priority consecutively during the first, second and application of fertilizers and popularization of China Pri n t Cul t ure third Five Year Plans. As a result of these measures, the paddy with greater yielding capacity further modernized average annual growth rate of food production increased the state agriculture. Additionally, two important from 82.56 lakh mounds in 1951-52 to 166.10 lakh production programmes- Community Development mounds in 1964-65. Programme (CDP) and Intensive Agricultural Development Programme (IADP) were also initiated 3. ERA OF COOPERATIVES during the period of Bakshi Ghulam Muhammad. Greater emphasis was put on the Cooperative Movement with the object of bringing the entire village life into its fold. The Cooperatives remained instrumental in tackling debt issues, financing of crops, providing lands for cultivation on lease and encouraged the repayments 131  4. INFRASTRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT: of 5.26 million. Many new industries were established ROADS AND BUILDINGS with technological and monetary assistance from the Government of India. Handicraft industry got impetus The construction of roads and buildings received huge because of the training of artisans and craftsmen in shawl impetus after 1947 especially under the Government of making, carpet weaving, wood carving, paper machie Bakshi Ghulam Muhammad. Apart from constructing and silverware. The silk and woolen factories were educational institutions, hospitals, buildings for modernized. Subsequently, the State held its first Government departments, hydroelectric projects, Industrial Exhibition in 1955 which opened greater housing colonies and stadiums, Bakshi Ghulam avenues for Kashmiri goods in the market outside the Muhammad also significantly contributed to the region. All these advancements also proved instrumental establishment of a vast network of roads within the State. in generation of employment opportunities in the State. Construction of Banihal tunnel designed by German engineers was considered to be one of the greatest 6. KASHMIR CHALO CAMPAIGN:BOOST achievements of the time. The tunnel accommodated TO TOURISM AND INDIAN FILM two-way traffic and resulted in greater flow of trade INDUSTRY between Kashmir and rest of India. Further, in order to bridge up the rural urban divide the city bus service was The Kashmir Chalo Campaign by the Bakshi’s started which connected the remote towns and villages. Government boosted tourism and film industry in the Electrification of the villages and anti-flood measures region. Advertisements were used to publicise the state were also taken up. These developments gave boost to achievements in the sphere of education, healthcare and the tourism and the fruit industry. Besides boosting industry. The entire administration was mobilized to take economic growth and creating job opportunities, the road part in the campaign. Department of Information took connectivity also increased cultural interactions within the lead in propagating these developmental ideas to and outside the state. multiple audiences. The Government led by Bakshi took important steps to promote tourism which included opening up publicity 5.INDUSTRIAL GROWTH SPED UP wings all over the country, improvements in air services, abolition of permit system, construction of youth hostels and revitalizing hotel arrangements. A series of travel During the pre-1947 era, there was hardly any industrial guides were printed and distributed through organizations base in the region and traditional occupations like like school, universities and media throughout India and handicrafts and handlooms were the only significant non- elsewhere. The Government also built a Tourist Reception agricultural pursuits of livelihood to the people. However,Centre in early sixties. after 1947 the Government made concerted efforts for the promotion of industrial sector. For this, industrial Thus, Kashmir came into media gaze about its beautiful estates were established at Gandhi Nagar (Jammu), landscape and handicrafts. Many block buster movies India and the Contemporary World Barzulla (Srinagar) and Anantnag at a total capital outlay were shot in Kashmir & places of natural attraction like Gulmarg, Pahalgam, Sonamarg, Kokernag, Verinag and Achabal became favourite destinations for the people of the countrty as well as world. This also brought economic dividend to the valley. NEW WORDS: Discuss with your friends the Paper Machie- A craft using waste benefits of the growing tourism paper to form beautiful articles. It is a industry in the State? Do you think popular art in Kashmir. it also generates any environmental concern? 132  intermediate college exclusively for girls was established in Srinagar and Gandhi Memorial College With the help of internet try to for Women was established in Jammu. The University find out the names of some of Jammu and Kashmir was established in 1948. The recently released films whose new Government also constituted a Textbook shooting has taken place in Advisory Board in 1948, with the Prime Minister of Kashmir? the State as its Chairman, to prepare new textbooks to meet the contemporary challenges. This vision of modern education received further Financial Support and the State impetus during Bakshi’s reign with the full financial backing of the Central Government. Following were Building Project the main highlights of the State Government’s education policy during this period: The State of Jammu and Kashmir was among the poorest regions of the Indian subcontinent in 1947  The salaries of the teachers were and therefore, it could not think of launching significantly increased and education from ambitious development plans without financial primary to University level was made free. support from outside. In the post-1947 era the state received huge financial support from the Central  A network of educational institutions for Government. About 90% of the State’s Five Year Plans primary, middle and the higher education were funded by the Centre. The State was were opened and job oriented education was categorized as a Special State and received the also incorporated in the curriculum. Central assistance in the form of 70% Loan and 30%  Textbooks were provided to the poor students Grant which was unlike the other Special Category and steps were taken to develop languages States which received financial assistance in the like Kashmiri, Dogri, and Bhoti apart from form of 90% grant and 10% Loan. Thus, whereas the other regional languages. Central financial assistance helped the state in carrying out its developmental projects but at the  System of scholarship was constituted for same time, it increased the dependence of the state poor students. on the Centre and also led to its indebtedness. on the Centre and also led to its indebtedness. Women education received special attention and there was an unprecedented increase B. SOCIAL B.SOCIALREFORMS REFORMS:. SOIAL REFORMS: in women schools and colleges. 1. GROWTH OF MODERN EDUCATION  Medical and Engineering Colleges were established in Srinagar. National Institute of Technology and Government Medical College During Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah’s regime, were founded during Bakshi’s regime. education was accorded top priority and viewed as Pri n t Cul t ure the most important tool for meeting various In 1955, G.M. Sadiq as the Education Minister under challenges of the time and as an instrument for Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad drafted the Educational social and economic transformation. About 35% of Policy of the State. Emphasis was laid on progressive the annual budget was spent on the expansion of education that was primarily to meet the economic education and development of education goals of the State. Mobile schools were also set up infrastructure. Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah pleaded for the tribals like Gujjars and Bakkerwals. The far for changes in the outdated syllabi and for making sighted vision behind such a comprehensive agricultural education compulsory in village schools. educational policy was to give a practical shape to He standardized the education from top to bottom. the State’s goal of an equitable society. Job oriented courses were introduced and special arrangements were made for female education. An 133  process started under Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah, What do you mean by Mobile school? it was further expanded under Bakshi’s rule who was Who are the people teaching in these able to materialize the cultural aims of Naya schools? Kashmir. The Bakshi regime is distinguished for How far do you think that the opening promoting entertainment industry under state of these schools benefitted the tribal patronage. people of the State? 1. CULTURAL FRONT 2. NEW SPACE FOR WOMEN Cultural Front was an organization which contributed to the development of a syncretic cultural ethos. Women Education led to their greater mobility and Writers affiliated with cultural front travelled women began to step up outside the four walls of throughout the region holding drama and theatre, their homes. Women education and later their programmes and activities on themes pertaining to employment resulted in their active presence in the social change, proletariat life, status of women and public sphere. The achievement of the women during Hindu Muslim unity, in villages and small towns. this period was so high that it altered the gender Cultural Front was renamed as Cultural Congress in landscape of schools, colleges, office, courts, 1949 and began to publish its literary journal Kwang hospitals, hotels and business establishments; thus Posh. Important writers of the time were Dina Nath women began making a mark in every field. Nadim, Rehman Rahi, Dinoo Bhai Pant, Som Nath 3. HEALTH CARE FACILITIES Zutshi, Prof. Ram Nath Shastri and Amin Kamil. A number of steps were taken by the Dogra rulers Dina Nath Nadim was a prominent progressive and the successive Abdullah Gogvernment to provide Kashmiri poet of the 20th century who introduced the better health services. However, the available trend of staging operas in Kashmiri language. There resources were insufficient to do anything is a long list of his poems but the most celebrated substantial to address this problem. It was only after poem in the form of an opera is ‘Bomber Te Yemberzal’ which was a satire on the misrule in Kashmir. the assumption of power by Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad in 1953 that concrete efforts were taken Prof. Ram Nath Shastri infused a new life into its to meet the growing demand for effective health literary movement through the Dogri Sanstha. A services. The Bakshi Government chalked out, with profilic writer, critic, poet & short story writer. the help of outside experts, an elaborate health Receipient of many awards and honours, he got Sahitya Akademi Award in 1976 for his book titled- programme and increased the budget for health ‘Badnami Di Chhan, a collection of short stories in services by more than 50 percent. The number of Dogri. He was bestowed with Padamshree for his rich hospitals increased from 2 to 19 and those of the contribution to Dogri Culture and literature. dispensaries from 87 to 401 by the end of 1960s. Rehman Rahi was also one of the leading poets of the The most important step taken by the Government time. His most popular poem ‘Maefi Nama’ was a India and the Contemporary World to make health services accessible to the common satire on the Government policies in Kashmir. people was to abolish the operation fee levied in the State hospitals. Dinoo Bhai Pant was a trendsetting writer & poet who laid the foundation of Modern Dogri poetry. His outstanding ‘Gutlun’,’ Shehar Pehlo Pehl Gae’ proved C. CULTURAL POLICY an instant hit in 1944. In 1985, he won Sahitya Akademi Award in Dogri for his book ‘Ayodhya’. Some The programmes of economic and social reforms of his other works are:- ‘Mangu De Chhbeel’- a were supplemented by a cultural policy that aimed collection of Dogri poems and ‘Sarpanch’- a tragic drama. at promoting a liberal, modern and tolerant outlook. Besides, promoting and preserving the composite culture of the state, it also tried to promote a bond between Jammu & Kashmir and India. While the 134  2. LALLA ROOKH PUBLICATIONS: Lalla Rookh Publications was established in 1955 as a non-profit organization. It collected, compiled and produced literature related to Kashmir and sold and distributed the same outside the region. Besides, it also published literature pertaining to Kashmir’s cultural heritage. However, due to political compulsions, Lalla Rookh publications was disbanded in 1957 and incorporated back to the Department of Information. Find out the names of some important literary journals of the period? What was their unique contribution in the promotion of culture in the region? 3. JASHN-I-KASHMIR: In 1956, the Jammu and Kashmir Government hosted first ever festival of Jashn-i-Kashmir which was held throughout the region. It intended to bring to light many aspects of Kashmiri culture and served as a vehicle of contact between Kashmir and the rest of India. It showcased regional theatre, music, poetry, dance of Kashmir as well as of various other Indian States. 4. J&K ACADEMY OF ART, CULTURE AND LANGUAGES: Furthermore, Government established the J&K Academy of Art, Culture and Languages in both the regions of the State in 1958. The scope of CulturalAcademy was broader than the Lalla Rookh Publications as it also incorporated music, drama, theatre and dance in vernacular languages for further promotion of regional languages of the State. All cultural activities in the region effectively came under the purview of Cultural Academy which also developed ties with Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi. Though Bakshi’s Government relied on writers and poets to promote its narratives of progress as conceived in Naya Kashmir but in the later years of his period, the cultural intelligentsia (writers and poets) including the great poets like Dina Nath Nadim and Rehman Rahi, critically evaluated the developmental campaign during Ghulam Muhammad Bakshi’s period. Through humorous satire and irony in their writings, they exposed the inefficacy of some of the policies and programmes initiated during Bakshi’s regime. CONCLUSION: The policies and programs of the State Government during this period improved the peoples’ standard of living, increased financial and economic integration with India and allowed massive financial aids from Delhi. All these measures improved agriculture, industry and created employment in the state. However, it was a short term economic planning, done mainly in political context, with over reliance on aid from the Centre. As a result, the original agenda of Naya Kashmir of building a self-reliant state largely remained unfulfilled. The Governments during this period were also somewhat intolerant of their critics and tried to muzzle the voice of those who differed with their political Ideology. Pri n t Cul t ure Sahitya Akademi is an organization dedicated to the promotion of literature in India. It was formally inaugurated in 1954 under the aegis of the first Prime Minister of the Independent India, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru. Collect picture of Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah, Bakshi Ghulam Muhammad and Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru and paste them on your scrap book. Also pen down some information about their important achievements. 135  TEXTUAL EXERCISE: LET‘S RECALL 1. Match the following: a. Naya Kashmir Manifesto Magna Carta of Peasant’s Rights b. Mukraris Land grants in lieu of services 3. Jagirs Economic Reforms in Kashmir d. Big Landed Estates Abolition Act Custodian grants 2. Fill in the blanks: a. _______________ was the most popular leader of Kashmir during the early Post-Independence period. b. _______________ was appointed as the second Prime Minister of Jammu and Kashmir. c. _______________ was the literary journal of Cultural Congress. d. In 1955, _______________as the Education Minister under Bakshi Ghulam Muhammad drafted the Education Policy of the state. e. _______________was the most celebrated progressive Kashmiri poet who wrote ‘Bomber Te Yemberzal’. 3. State whether True or False: a. The Naya Kashmir Manifesto had a heavy socialistic tune. ( ) b. In 1957, Lalla Rookh Publications was disbanded and incorporated back to the Information Department. ( ) c. The first Prime Minister of Kashmir was Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad. ( ) d. The Jammu and Kashmir University was established in the year 1948. ( ) e. Banihal Tunnel was constructed in the year 1960. ( ) LET’S DISCUSS 4. Right in breif: India and the Contemporary World a. Briefly discuss the major economic reforms introduced by the post-1947 Governments in the State. b. What was the impact of land reforms on rural society? c. Highlight the Education Policy of the Government in Jammu and Kashmir during Bakshi’s period? d. Write a short note on Jashn-i-Kashmir and Cultural Front. e. Discuss the role of state in the promotion of tourism. f. Write a short note on the development of roads and buildings during Bakshi’s regime. 136