Module Handout: Genomes, Chromosomes & Genes PDF

Module 1: Genomes, Chromosomes & Genes vocab-memorize Que...

Module 1: Genomes, Chromosomes & Genes vocab-memorize Questions : Important - on Exams !! work ? - Why do we care about genes & How they - What is Genome ? How do we & ? - study genomes genes ? - What are the notation we use in genetics Genes Section of DNA in that codes for protein : a genome or chromosome Protein Amino Acids Molecule made up of : Large - Acid peptide Protein sacks of proteins All Organisms are big do do ? What proteins - Catalyze : Speed up an reaction (Enzymes body structure (structural proteins -give in cells (membrane-transport & carrier protein how energy chemicals , water more - Regulate , turn on or off. - Regulate when other genes Genes make protein ; without genes we are nothing tint in Genes Have two kinds of parts : startor 1) The part of that determine When the gene is expressed (made into protein ↑ gene ↳ that determine what the protein looks like. promoter sequence 2) The part of gene Silencer & enhancer * Exons : untranslated Regions I · - include the start & Stop codons Intron (Sometimes ( - the area in between the Star t stop codons is the Open Reading frame 5'splice on polymerase reads info in gene & [ a Transcription : RNA (DNA) & Translation Convert to : MRNA Ribosomes read info in MRNA & convert it A to protein Determine is expressed. When where gene frame - Reading ofhe-Open Promoter (UTRs Untranslated Regions - a gene that binds the RNA polymerase , starting transcription. · Small Stretches of DNA · Made of DNA Each have two : very close to the exon gene S'untransited binds to RNA Polymerase · Not transcribed - region (start of the gene · itself is not transcribed. - 3'untranslated region (End of the genel have I promoter. gene only · Located on the ends of the ORF Chancers & Silencers /where turned on. · Thought to Regulate When genes are Small Stretches of DNA binds Called transcription factors - protein · transcribe but not translated have tense hundreds of enhancer & Silencers · gene Introns can be 100 , 000 base pairs away from the itself O ccur between exons Stretches of DNA · gene - can be turned on or off , if transcription factor is bound to them don't gene · Some have them gene · protein Called Activator determine when /where Chancers Stretches of DNA bind to Sequence can gene expressed - · Silencers - Stretches of DNA bind to protein called Repressors · transcribed but not translated · Not transcribed or translated  Terminator Sequence : RNA Polymerase Detach and Exons : Transcription stops. of that code for protein - part gene be made of one or more exon gene can Transcribe & translated - Start codons : is where translation start · ATG (DNA) or AUG (RNA) -> introns During gene expression are · first codon on first exon , - Stop Codon : Where translation stops Removed which connects exons to create a - TAA , TAG , Tha (DNA) Mature MRNA. - UAA UAG , UGA (RNA) , - Last codon on last exon. Open From CORF) DNA between Start & Stop codon Reading : - Where translationOccurs Genes vs Alleles All individuals in a species have the some - genes but can have different versions of or Alleles genes - if mutation occurs in one it create - gene , a new allele. different version of the some Alleles : gene. One could have hundreds of Allele gene Sometimes different alleles make genes its protein work differently Genome : DNA (genetic Material) of an Organism Contain - genetic material for an Organism materials made of nucleotides (compound molecules that make up genetic are · DNA Or RNA) - Adenine - Thymine (DNA) each other to form base - Guanine nucleotides alway pair with - cytosine Pairs - Uracil (RNA) A - T / A - u G - C DNA : String of nucleotides that contain genetic info. Held together by Hydrogen bonds. - Double helix Store&Organize e double stranded DNA Wrapped in protein - chromosome : One very long length - All chromosomes make up a genome chromosomes - Humans have 23 pair (46 individual) - females have XX chromosomes chromosomes males have Xy Every cell has the Entire genome ! different is what is turned on or off in different Cells - What make cells gene those contain half of the. The only exception is germ cells (Sperm & Egg) genome that wrap around DNA mching nucleosomes 2 keeps Histones : protein DNA packed made of 8 histones & Nucleosomes : protein complexes ~ in a cell Chromatin : Combination of DNA and nucleosomes thiscnaffetee - turn on or Package IN off it'll mutate more How likely Humans & Other Species have Similar · genome compact structure -this is because our cells do the same thing similar characteristics they inherited from Homology : Species have common Ancestor a it m ches are similar across different species Conserved : Sequence of gene & protein Genomes consist of & their Regulatory Region plus Junk DNA genes , Junk DNA ! Highly Repetitive DNA Sequence · 75 % of DNA in human is junk 1 5 % of human code for genome protein ·.  Species Genomes vary in ploidy chromosomes Ploidy : Amount of copies you have each copies of chromosomes mom · Humans are Diploids : two Dan · Most Prokaryote are haploid : One copy of chromosome ↳ to -3 pairs of chromosomes ↳ chromosomes Humans we have two Are Diploid of f spen Diploid - copies every gene Egg have two alleles at - we every gene i 11I -1/2 of ech par - Those alleles could be the same or different = 3 chromosomes · Humans have heploid eggs these two and sperm. ↳ haploid - when hiploid cells combine they make a diploid , You from 1111 - 3 pairs chromosome - you one chromosome mone one from get I chromosomes Dad ↳. Diploid. Genes on Chromosomes has defined location Sister chromatics Homologous Chromosome US gene a - every You can count where it is on the chromosome - Sister Chronctios : identical chromosomes joined at the base it is clay from the top of the base on how many pairs Centromere chromosomes. - formed After DNA Replication have some & Alleles A chromosome have hundreds to thousand genes genes single -. numbered from biggest to smallest Homologous chromosomes : two copies of pair of chromosome - a Centromeres : Where S Chromatics Attach. together - Not joined together mitosis & Meiosis and where Microtubules attach during - have some gene Contribute to accurate distribution - of genetic Have different Alleles Due from your material ! - to inheriting one and one from Genomes & Genes Mom your Dad. How do we study - Boo Homosomes a N M DNA Sequencing DNA - method that lets you find out the sequence of nucleotides in t chromctios a genome S. Method : 1) take cell from individual 2) Isokte DNA 4) use sequencing ochine to Sequence DNA 5) turn DNA into Library A Human genome can be sequenced for $500 in 40 hours The first , genome cost $2 7 billion and took 15 years. , CRISPR-Cas9 method that Allows to edit of genome - an embryo - introduces mutation into embryo's genome. ich is Not the function performed by proteins ? 2) How many promoters are in ech gene? 3) which protein does enhancer Bin factor A) one per exon A) transcription Al Serving as a template for making new copies of protein B) Unlimited B) Bind to DNA to turn on B) RNA Polymerase gene 2) one total C) provide shope & Structure to skin D) Two total D) pump sodium ions to create Ap in newes El Break Down Alcohol After night of Drinking if mutation added a new start codon within an is not transcribed ? 5) What would likely happen 4) which part of the gene intron of a gene ? of mRNA codon A) S'UTR A) would start transcription prematurely at new stop gene B) enhancer B) would start translating a new protein at location of new start codon gene Start codon would stop transition at new C) intron C) gene 6) extron d) would produce a normal protein. gene  what base ? If to smallest ? Organization of genetic with material from largest 6) DNA , adenine (A) always pair we order level of Al Uracil Al chromosome nucleotide , genome. Humans 8 Typically have-pairs of chromosomes , gene , B) Thymine B) genome , chromosome nucleotide A) 13 gene, , c) Cytosine B) 23 C) chromosome nucleotide genome , , gene , C) 2) d) Guanine 6) nucleotide , chromosome , genome gene , d) 46 9) following is Notre aboutn Whichof the a nucleotide el chromosome , genome gene , , a) 42 copies does A) Humans & Mice roughly have 92 % some genes 10. If an individual is triploid , how many doesn't code for protein each have ? B) Most of our genome gene differ in their genome sequence by much C individual people A)3 us 5 B) z D) plants have larger genome than humans C)) d) 10 is billion e) genome 3 long e) 4 that is transcribed ? which of the first part of the gene Draw chromosomes S'UTR - BLASZ B b > - Nuf e Nu up stream = before or toward s direction ⑥ ① toward 3'direction - DET E or Downstream = After ISPRTN g  Module 2: Translation, Transcription, and mutation what is translation and transcription Central - Dogma of Molecular Biology transcription : When the information in DNA convert into Information carried by RNA. translation : Information in the MUNA is converted into information carried by Protein. Transcription & translated are how DNA are made into protein MRNAd Protein have don't last in our cells very short lives & they long - MRNA Last for 10 hours - Protein Last for 40 hours So our cells constantly make more MRNA& protein Transcription factors Bind DNA transcription factor : protein that bind to Specific DNA Sequence in a & regulate gene expression gene Activator transcription factors : protein bind to enhancers & increase expression of gene. Repressor transcription factor : protein bind to silencers & decrease expression & of the gene Transcription factor physically open the DNA to the RNA Polymerase get RNA bind to the Promoter in & Stabilize the RNA Polymerase , Polymerase & allow it to bind. RNA Polymerase : protein Makes RNA from DNA that once bind transcription starts Premature MRNA becomes Mature RNA Premature MRNA : RNA molecule that contain UTR extrons , & Intron , introns get Removed & poly-A cap is added - Don't have cells do contain Some Eukaryoks are single-cell but nucleus Bacteria unicellukr & They ARE All prokaryotes are lack membrane > - - bound nucleus & Diverse in shape & Size Organelles - - photosynthetic genome - fission circular DNA molecule/chromosomes Replication occur prior binary mostly comprised of single - a , · nepliectly > - Plasmid : An extra chromosomes of Small circular DNA of its bacterial chromosome · Replicates independently F factor R Factor # of that Regulate - group of Conjugative · Contains genes transfer into bacterial cell , replication, Plasmid that promote the bacterial host resistance secona bacterial chromosome and insertion into widely in Research to specific Antibiotics ↑ ~ - user resistant Drug - = cells : Donor Contain - biggest plasmid in ecoli - factor : Gene transfer in Bacteria operon F' cell : Contain plasmic Bacterium Series of gene carrying bacterial gene Direct transfer of DNA from Conjugation : one that is controlled · to another. Horizontal gene transfer by a single Genes passed between Transformation : bacterium take up free DNA different species by Promoter non- Reproductive method. Transduction : bacterial Viruses take DNA from one Bacteria to Another Conjugation Transformation between f and f cells E factor is transferred during Conjugation an Bacterium DNA from Medium - - takes up is measured by the time Required for DNA Distance between genes Recombination occurs between introduced gene and the chromo. - - f-cells high frequency transfer from cells (HFrl to to be transferred indicte the position Competent cell : cells that can take up DNA for individual - Amount of time genes of the gene on chromosome ?? Transformed Cell : cells thats received genetic Material resistance Co-transformed cells : cells transformer by two or more genes Natural transfer & antibiotic gene - - - Rpksmid evolved Since the use ( comes from the action of genes located Bacterial Defense Mechanism of Antibiotics on Re that can transfer naturally plasmid · Restriction - ModificationSystem is Not restricted to bacteria of the same or even rekted CrispusSection - Transfer of R pksmid Species PAM Sequence CRISPR-CAS Bacterial Immunity foreign o Takes place interes ~recognize it 1) Adaption Destroy 2) expression And 3)Interference gene editing CRISPR - Developed 2012 - modified version of the crispr-as a system from Streptococcus bacterium (Sore throat & Scarlet fever - provide Synthesize version of a guire RNA(gRNA) complementary to target DNA Strand - Cleaves DNA at the site , I DNA can be inserted Viruses - Simple Replicating structure (DNAIRNA) + protein cost Bacteriophage : bacteria infection Virus killis Livein - Virulent phage reproduce through lytic cycle & always kill the host cell where It remains as - Temperate phage : phage DNA integrate bacterial chromosome , inactive prophage Gene transfer uS · Transduction - Bacteria Viruses (bacteriophage) from Cry DNA One Bacterium to another KNOW This - occurs between bacteria of the some or closely related species Generalized Transduction transferred Any gene be · may Specialized Transduction transferred Only few are · genes > - DNA COPY More on Viruses Many plants & animal viruses - into the host genome - Retrovirus : RNA virus that has been integrated into host DNA - uses neverse transcription to incorporate its RNA RNA/DNA Template DNA RNA Viruses · Influence Viruses - influenza A the New Strains of Influenza Appear due to - most cases are influenza - B both Antigenic - drift and shift influenza A influenza C Antigenic drift - Mutations introduced into the : are constantly genome Antigenic Shift : new wird genome are created through Reassortment of RNA Molecule Corona Virus of different string - SARS-CoV-2 (Severe acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2) BCH MW(10028) viral Genome come in different structure 1 : 00 pm reverse is An Enzyme used by retrovirus to 3 : 15 po neverse transcription transcribe a DNA Copy of its RNA Genome MCB (10486) My 4 : 30 7 :S 200 (10502) T1 : 30- R 4 : IS  Module 4 : Genotype vs Phenotype Trait. Phenotype : An observable characteristic of the organism in a given trait : characteristic of An organism Traits can be : Trait vs phenotype - Physical Appearance characteristic - trait is the trait look like for the - Behavior - phenotype is What the Organism - Development (lifespan) EX : trait is height - internal properties Phenotype is 5'3ft Estrovenceas - Nature vs Nurture (nature - Asknow much of our phenotype are because of our genetics us Our Environment (nurture are results of both nature and nurture - Reality is that all phenotype Phenotype Phenotype are Results B oth of your genotype Genotype is your genetic makeup Environment includes Both your currentEnvironment & past · Diet/nutrient Environment matter to phenotype Climate where There are often multiple stages · Bacteria /virus /etc. · Exposure to Environment can mediate phenotype · Stress Traits can be continuous or Discrete can be put in a few categories Discrete traits where the phenotype Almost All traits are Ex : Sickle cell : either have it or not Continuous flowers : White or purple of possible phenotype ↑ most traits the continuous traits Where there are a huge range complex be either 5'1 61 , S'8 , s'llft Ex : You could , Complex traits : many protein interact to give Rise to trait eye brown , Hazel blue , green blue-green color :. , Affect Phenotype of function gain , can be either or loss Mutations that How Does Genotype Affect Phenotypes ? Mutation Mutation alleles lead to Different Proteins Depending on the Alleles different - Affectinggene Affecting estructure , - structure different levels of or gene expression Gain of New function Mutations Create Alleles (Genetic Diversity ( increase for protein function - if Mutation occur in a gene , a new allele is created (gof) gene express or Protein function more Different Sometimes affect the & protein - Allele gene Protein no longer Loss of Decrease function Most Mutations Don't Affect Phenotype at all function gene Or express some D o by : CLof) Protein function Less 1) Changing protein structure introns , promoter, enhancer, Silencer 2) Affecting gene expression c-could be in Dominant US Recessive Alleles 1 Phenotype even if you have copy Dominant Alleles ! Shows if your Recessive Allele : Shows Phenotype only homozygous. c-lof Mutation tend to be necessive Dominant Homozygous : both pair of Same Allele (Atoraa) got mutation tend to be Heterozygous : both pair different Allele (a)  lof tend to be recessive ? Why of the mutation in the - if a flower have one copy gene - the Mutation will not PhenotypicallyShow has the mutation in both copies But if the flower I t ' l l show - phenotypically Why tend to be Dominant ? do gof mutation in make Darker purple - If a flower has a got one copy to a - It'll show phenotypically Exceptions : Haplosufficiency : When having one copy of normal allele is not enough to produce a normal Phenotype Lof Mutation Leads Domincht Allele Mutation to Haploid - Sufficiency Ex ! Colorase gene makes a colorase protein , which makes brown pigment and brown Dogs Antimorphic Mutation : are lof mutation that leads to defective protein that interfere with normal - Recaprese Protein Why the genotype to phenotype connection is complicated ? ↑ are having soColor - because organisms are complicated Dog has a lof Mutation only a Eachofthesegenes whe Simple traits A re complicated - Determine shin color 2 in Certain Amount Poo genes partially some cases you need a - - · 700 genes partially Determine height Trait of protein for it to work. · Determine heart Disease · 100 genes Partially so even though the Doghes I copy of the - Biochemical Pathway lof it still express. D Epistasis : Multiple gene interst to give rise to one trait (Both have to be present Gene 1 Chemical A Protein A Protein Protein GAMMA ChemicalDet> Chemicale Wild Types Chemical > Make you green - C Chemical B Gene 2 Protein B Most Common Allele & phenotype - ② Redundancy : When multiple are Doing the same thing Senelgene (either one can wor a