Module 7 Textbook PDF

Module 7 Launching the Nation Essential Question How did challenges and disagreements help shape the new nation? About the Photo: The Washington In this module you wi...

Module 7 Launching the Nation Essential Question How did challenges and disagreements help shape the new nation? About the Photo: The Washington In this module you will learn about the important events of the first three Monument in the nation’s capital is one of presidencies and how they affected the country. You will also learn about many tributes to George Washington. the beginnings of many traditions that still exist today. What You Will Learn … Lesson 1: Washington Leads a New Nation................ 246 Explore ONLINE! The Big Idea President Washington and members of Congress VIDEOS, including... established a new national government. George Washington Lesson 2: Hamilton and National Finances................ 250 The Big Idea Treasury secretary Alexander Hamilton developed a financial plan for the national government. Lesson 3: Challenges for the New Nation................. 255 The Big Idea The United States faced significant foreign and domestic challenges under Washington. Document-Based Investigations Lesson 4: John Adams’s Presidency.................... 263 Graphic Organizers The Big Idea The development of political parties in the United States contributed to differing ideas about the role of the federal Interactive Games government. Interactive Graph: Tackling the Debt Lesson 5: Jefferson Becomes President.................. 268 The Big Idea Thomas Jefferson’s election began a new era in Image Carousel: Battles in the American government. Northwest Territory Image Slider: The Election of 1800 242 Module 7 Timeline of Events 1785–1805 Explore ONLINE! United States World 1785 1789 George Washington 1789 The French Revolution begins. becomes the first president. 1793 French revolutionaries behead King Louis XVI. 1794 The Whiskey Rebellion begins in Pennsylvania. 1795 Native American leaders sign the Treaty of Greenville. 1796 John Adams is elected president on December 7. 1799 George Washington dies at Mount 1799 The Rosetta Stone is discovered Vernon, Virginia, on December 14. in Egypt. Inscriptions on the stone make it possible for researchers to read Egyptian 1800 Thomas Jefferson hieroglyphics. is elected president. 1802 An army of former slaves led by Toussaint-Louverture 1803 U.S. Senate approves defeats a French army the Louisiana Purchase. in Haiti. 1804 Lewis and Clark begin their journey westward. 1805 Launching the Nation 243 Reading Social Studies THEME FOCUS: Economics and Politics This module, titled “Launching the Nation,” describes how the early leaders established this nation’s political and economic systems. You will read about Washington’s presidency, Hamilton’s plan for financial security for the nation, the establishment of two parties to elect the president, and Jefferson’s struggles with both Washington and Hamilton. Throughout the module you will see that disagreement often defined these early days. READING FOCUS: Inferences about History What’s the difference between a good guess and a weak guess? A good guess is an educated guess. In other words, the guess is based on some knowledge or information. That’s what an inference is, an educated guess. Make Inferences about What You Read To make an inference, combine information from your reading with what you already know, and make an educated guess about what it all means. Once you have made several inferences, you may be able to draw a conclusion that ties them all together. Question What kind of person was Alexander Hamilton? Steps for Making Inferences Inside the Text Outside the Text 1. Ask a question. Hamilton ran a company Running a company 2. Note information when he was just a takes intelligence and “Inside the Text.” teenager. cleverness. 3. Note information “Outside the Text.” He had a career as a Becoming a lawyer 4. Use both sets of lawyer. takes dedication. information to make He became the Washington probably an educated guess, secretary of the treasury wanted someone clever or inference. under Washington. and capable. Inference Alexander Hamilton was an intelligent, clever, and dedicated man. 244 Module 7 You Try It! Key Terms and People Lesson 1 George Washington Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow. electoral college Martha Washington precedent Judiciary Act of 1789 Economic Differences Hamilton wanted new forms of Lesson 2 economic growth. He wanted to promote manufactur- Alexander Hamilton ing and business. He even suggested that the govern- national debt ment award a prize to companies that made excellent bonds speculators products. Thomas Jefferson In addition, Hamilton wanted to pass higher tariffs. loose construction Known as protective tariffs, these taxes would raise the strict construction prices of foreign products. Hamilton hoped this would Bank of the United States cause Americans to buy U.S. goods. As a result, Ameri- Lesson 3 can manufacturing would be protected from foreign French Revolution Neutrality Proclamation competition. privateers Jefferson worried about depending too much on Jay’s Treaty business and manufacturing. He believed that farmers Pinckney’s Treaty were the most independent voters... Jefferson wanted Little Turtle to help farmers by keeping the costs of the goods they Battle of Fallen Timbers Treaty of Greenville bought low. Lower tariffs would help keep prices low. Whiskey Rebellion Lesson 4 political parties Answer these questions based on the passage you just read. Federalist Party 1. Which two questions can be answered directly from the Democratic-Republican Party text above and which one requires that you make an XYZ affair inference? Alien and Sedition Acts Kentucky and Virginia a. Who wanted higher tariffs—Hamilton or Jefferson? Resolutions b. Why do you think Hamilton and Jefferson had different Lesson 5 John Adams views on the importance of manufacturing? Louisiana Purchase c. Which man wanted to help the farmers? Meriwether Lewis William Clark 2. To answer question b, it might help to know that Sacagawea Hamilton lived in New York City and Jefferson was from John Marshall the more rural area of Virginia. Use that information and Marbury v. Madison information in the passage to explain why one man might judicial review have valued manufacturing more than the other. As you read Module 7, remember that you need to combine what you already know with the information in the module to make inferences. Launching the Nation 245  Lesson 1 Washington Leads a New Nation If YOU were there... The Big Idea You are a seamstress in New York City in 1789. You’ve President Washington and joined the excited crowd in the streets for Inauguration members of Congress Day. Church bells are ringing, and people are cheering. established a new national Even though you were just a young child during the government. Revolution, Washington is your hero. Now you watch as Main Ideas he takes the oath of office. You are proud to see that he is wearing a suit of American-made cloth. In 1789 George Washington became the first president of What do you think America’s future will be like the United States. under President Washington? Congress and the president organized the executive and judicial branches of The First President government. Americans believed in George Washington. They saw him as Americans had high expecta- an honest leader and a hero of the Revolution. Many believed he tions for their new nation. should be the first U.S. president. Washington had been look- ing forward to retirement and a quiet life on his Virginia farm. Key Terms and People When he hesitated at becoming a candidate for the presidency, George Washington his friends convinced him to run. Fellow politician Gouverneur electoral college Morris told him, “Should the idea prevail [win] that you would Martha Washington not accept the presidency, it should prove fatal... to the new precedent Judiciary Act of 1789 government.” Morris concluded confidently, “Of all men, you are the best fitted to fill that office.” In January 1789 each of the 11 states that had passed the Constitution sent electors to choose the first president. These delegates formed a group called the electoral college. The electoral college is a body of electors who represent the people’s vote in choosing the president. The electoral college selected Washington unanimously, and John Adams became his vice president. Washington’s wife, First Lady Martha Washington, entertained guests and attended social events with her husband. She described the scene to her niece: “I have not Martha Washington had one half-hour to myself since the day of my arrival.” She ran the presidential household with style. Other women of the time period, such as author Judith Sargent Murray, believed that women needed to play a greater 246 Module 7  role in the new nation than Martha Washington did. Murray, Abigail Adams, and others believed in Republican Motherhood, the idea that women played an important role in teaching their children to be good citizens. Some promoters of Republican Motherhood did not expect women to participate in politics or business. Other people, however, hoped that Republican Motherhood would lead to greater opportunities for women. Reading Check They hoped more women would receive an education. Only a few families Analyze were willing to provide much education for their daughters, and adult Information Why women rarely had the time or money to get an education later in life. Most was Washington selected to be women in the early republic faced long days managing their households president? and working hard inside or outside the home to support their families. Organizing the Government Hard work also lay ahead for members of the new government. The new federal government had to create policies and procedures that would deter- mine the future of the country. As President Washington noted in a let- ter to James Madison, “The first of everything in our situation will serve to establish a precedent.” A precedent is an action or decision that later serves as an example. The First Congress created departments in the executive branch for different areas of national policy. Washington met with the department heads, or cabinet members, who advised him. Today we know that presidents have cabinet meetings with their top advisers. This practice started during Washington’s presidency and was common by 1792. For two of his most important cabinet positions, Washington chose carefully. He picked Alexander Hamilton as secretary of the treasury and Thomas Jefferson as secretary of state. Henry Knox served as secretary of war, and Samuel Osgood was chosen as postmaster general. Hamilton was a gifted economic planner, and Jefferson had served as ambassador to France. Knox had helped Washington run the Continental army, and Osgood had government experience. The First Cabinet Washington’s cabinet members kept him informed on political matters ➌ ➍ and debated important issues with ➎ one another. Each of the men chosen ➋ had experience that made him a wise choice to advise the nation’s first president. By 1792 cabinet meetings were a common practice. ➊ 1 Henry Knox, secretary of war 2 Thomas Jefferson, secretary of state 3 Edmund Randolph, attorney general 4 Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the treasury 5 George Washington, president Launching the Nation 247  To set up the federal court system and the courts’ locations, Congress passed the Judiciary Act of 1789. This act created three levels of federal courts and defined their powers and relationship to the state courts. It set up federal district courts and circuit courts of appeals. The president nominated candidates for federal judgeships. Those candidates then had to be approved or rejected by the Senate. Washington wrote about the impor- tance of these duties: “I have always been persuaded that the stability and success of the national government... would depend in a considerable degree on the interpretation and execution of its laws. In my opinion, therefore, it is Reading Check important that the judiciary system should not only be independent Find Main Ideas in its operations, but as perfect as possible in its formation.” What two important —George Washington to the Justices of the Supreme Court, April 3, 1790 precedents were established for the The basic parts of the federal government were now in place. Leaders federal government? began to face the challenges of the new nation. Hard work lay ahead. Americans’ Expectations for the Nation Most Americans had high expectations for the new country. They wanted improved trade, free from too many restrictions. But they also expected the government to protect them and to keep the economy stable. However, the idea of belonging to one united nation was new to them. In 1790 the United States was home to almost 4 million people. Most Americans lived in the countryside and worked on farms. Farmers wanted fair tax laws and the right to settle western lands. They did not want the government to interfere with their daily lives. Other Americans worked in towns as craftspeople, laborers, or mer- chants. These people looked to the government to help their businesses. Most merchants wanted simpler trade laws established. Manufacturers wanted laws to protect them from foreign competitors. A Rural Nation Some Americans lived in growing cities like New York City, shown here. However, the new republic was overwhelmingly rural. Most Americans lived and worked on farms. Why might rural Americans and urban Americans want different things from their new government? Urban vs. Rural Population, 1790 Rural Urban 95% 5% 248 Module 7  Most cities were small. Only New York City and Philadelphia had popu- lations larger than 25,000. New York City was the first capital of the United States, and it represented the spirit of the new nation. Although badly damaged during the Revolution, the city had already begun to recover. Citizens got rid of many signs of British rule. New York City had a bustling economy. International trade and busi- ness became more active. A French visitor to New York City noted the city’s energy. “Everything in the city is in motion; everywhere the shops resound Academic [ring out] with the noise of workers... one sees vessels arriving from Vocabulary agreement a deci- every part of the world.” sion reached by two —A French visitor to New York City, quoted in Travels Through the Two Louisianas and Among the or more people or Savage Nations of the Missouri by Perrin du Lac and Francois Marie groups In 1792 some 24 stockbrokers signed an agreement under a buttonwood tree on Wall Street. This agreement was the foundation for what later became the New York Stock Exchange. It cemented Wall Street’s image as the economic hub of the United States and eventually the world. Today, the Reading Check Analyze New York Stock Exchange is the largest market for securities, or stocks, in Information Why the world. was New York By 1790 the city’s population had topped 33,000 and was growing rap- City chosen as the first capital of the idly. To many officials, this vibrant city reflected the potential future of United States? the new nation. It was thus a fitting place for the capital. Summary and Preview Americans, led by President George Washington, set up their new government. In the next lesson you will read about Alex- ander Hamilton’s economic plan. Lesson 1 Assessment Review Ideas, Terms, and People c. Make Judgments Do you think New York City should still be the capital city of the United States? 1. a. Describe What role did the electoral college play in Explain your answer. George Washington’s election to the presidency? b. Summarize What were some of Martha Critical Thinking Washington’s duties as First Lady? 4. Compare In this lesson you learned about the presi- 2. a. Describe What precedent did President Washington dency of George Washington. Create a chart similar to and Congress establish regarding the executive the one below and use it to compare how Washington branch? and Congress organized the new government. b. Explain What was the purpose of the Judiciary Act of 1789? Acts of Washington’s c. Evaluate What do you think was the most Decisions Congress important element of the Judiciary Act of 1789? Why? 3. a. Recall What city served as the first capital of the First U.S. Government United States? Why? b. Draw Conclusions What expectations did most Americans have for the new nation? Launching the Nation 249  Lesson 2 Hamilton and National Finances If YOU were there... The Big Idea You live on a plantation in North Carolina in the 1790s. Treasury secretary Alexander You have just heard that the federal government plans Hamilton developed a to pay most of the northern states’ debts from the war. financial plan for the Your neighbors are outraged about this idea. It means national government. more taxes and tariffs! New York and Massachusetts are Main Ideas far away, they say. Why should North Carolina farmers have to pay northern debts? Hamilton tackled the problem of settling national and state Would you pay other states’ debt. war debts? Why? Thomas Jefferson opposed Hamilton’s views on govern- ment and the economy. Settling the Debt Alexander Hamilton seemed born with a head for economics. Hamilton created a national bank to strengthen the U.S. While still in his teens, he helped run a shipping company in economy. his native British West Indies. Family friends then sent him to the American colonies for an education. Hamilton eventually Key Terms and People married into a wealthy New York family and began practicing Alexander Hamilton law. He served as Washington’s aide and as a delegate to four national debt Continental Congresses. bonds speculators National Debt As secretary of the treasury, Hamilton’s biggest Thomas Jefferson challenge was paying off the national debt—money owed by loose construction the United States—from the Revolutionary War. The United strict construction States owed about $11.7 million to foreign countries and about Bank of the United States $40.4 million to U.S. citizens. During the war the government raised money with bonds. Bonds are certificates of debt that carry a promise to buy back the bonds at a higher price. The new government could not afford to keep this promise. Bond- holders who needed money sold their bonds for less than the original value to speculators, or people who buy items at low prices in the hope that the value will rise and they can sell the items for a profit. Hamilton wanted to pay the foreign debt immediately and gradually repay the total value of all bonds. The second part of his plan caused disagreements because paying full value would allow speculators to make a profit. Hamilton thought 250 Module 7 Hamilton’s Economic Plan Alexander Hamilton developed a three-point plan to solve the ➊ 1 Deal with the Debt would build nation’s financial problems. Take on the foreign and domestic investor confi- debt by replacing creditors’ old, dence in the low-value bonds with new, interest- stability of the new bearing bonds nation Total Debt Take over most of the states’ $25 million Revolutionary War debts would free up Domestic State debt ➋ 2 Gain Revenue state money debt $25 million $40.4 Pass a tariff to both bring in revenue for business million and help American manufacturers and trade ➌ 3 Stabilize the Banking System Foreign debt $11.7 million Create a national bank Create a national mint this was fair. He said, “He [the speculator] paid what the commodity [bond] was worth... and took the risks.” Thomas Jefferson disagreed. He thought the idea cheated bondholders who had sold their bonds at low prices. Jefferson wrote, “Immense sums were thus filched [stolen] from the poor and ignorant.” But more politi- cians agreed with Hamilton. In 1790 the government exchanged old bonds for new, more reliable ones that were guaranteed. States’ Debts The states owed $25 million for Revolutionary War expenses. Hamilton wanted the federal government to pay for $21.5 million of this debt. Hamilton believed that this action would help the federal government. He thought that paying the states’ debts would help the national economy. Debtor states would not have to spend so much on repayment and would have money to develop business and trade. Increased business and trade would put more money back into the national economy. The South, however, did not want to help the federal government pay the debts of other states. States such as Virginia and North Carolina did not have many war debts. They thought Hamilton’s idea was unfair. Pat- rick Henry said he did not believe that the Constitution gave Congress the power to pay state debts. Hamilton knew that he needed the help of south- ern representatives to get his plan approved. Moving the Capital Hamilton also knew that he had something to bargain with. Officials from the southern states wanted to change the location of the nation’s capital. Many southerners thought that having the capital in New York gave the northern states too much influence over national policy. Hamilton, Jefferson, and James Madison met in June 1790. Hamilton promised to convince northern members of Congress to move the capital. Jefferson and Madison then agreed to gather support in the South for Hamilton’s debt plan. Launching the Nation 251  Biography Benjamin Banneker 1731–1806 Benjamin Banneker was born to a free African American family in rural Maryland. He attended a Quaker school but was largely self-educated. He was a skilled mathematician and scientist. His mathematical skills prompted Thomas Jefferson to give him a job surveying the land for the new national capital. Draw Conclusions How was Benjamin Banneker’s life different from most African Americans’ of the time? The compromise worked. The national capital was moved to Philadel- phia in 1791 for ten years. For the capital’s permanent location, Wash- ington chose a place on the Potomac River that included part of both Maryland and Virginia. The land was made up of swamps and farms. This Reading Check site would eventually become the city of Washington, DC. Identify Points of View How did southerners feel Jefferson Opposes Hamilton about the federal Hamilton and Jefferson did not cooperate for long. Instead, they began government paying to disagree about how to define the authority of the central government. state war debts, and how did Hamilton Hamilton believed in a strong federal government. Jefferson wanted to change their minds? protect the powers of the states. Their conflict reflected basic differences in their opinions about democracy. Hamilton had little faith in the average individual. He once said that “the people... seldom judge or determine [decide] right.” Differing Views Hamilton wanted a strong central government that bal- anced power between the “mass of the people” and wealthier citizens. He believed that his approach would protect everyone’s liberties while keeping the people from having too much power. Jefferson disagreed strongly with Hamilton’s views of the average citizen’s ability to make decisions for the country. He admitted that “the people can not be all, and always, well informed.” However, Jefferson believed that it was the right of the people to rule the country. Economic Differences Hamilton and Jefferson also fought over how the country’s economy should grow. Hamilton wanted new forms of economic growth. He wanted to promote manufacturing and business. He even sug- gested that the government award a prize to companies that made excel- lent products. In addition, Hamilton wanted to pass higher tariffs. Known as protec- tive tariffs, these taxes would raise the prices of foreign products. Ham- ilton hoped this would cause Americans to buy U.S. goods. As a result, American manufacturing would be protected from foreign competition. 252 Module 7 DOCUMENTBASED INVESTIGATION Historical Source Role of a Citizen Alexander Hamilton thought that the average Thomas Jefferson believed that each citizen had no interest in public affairs. citizen could work to better society. “We must take man as we find “It is my principle that the will him, and if we expect him to of the Majority should always serve the public, [we] must prevail [win]... Above all interest his passions in doing so. things I hope the education A reliance on pure patriotism of the common people will be has been the source of many of attended to; [I am] convinced our errors.” that on their good sense —Alexander Hamilton, we may rely with the most from The Works of Alexander Hamilton, security for the preservation of ed. Henry Cabot Lodge a due degree of liberty.” —Thomas Jefferson, from a letter to John Adams, December 1787 Analyze Historical Sources How did the views of Hamilton and Jefferson differ? Jefferson worried about depending too much on business and manufac- Reading Check turing. He believed that farmers were the most independent voters. They Summarize What were the main did not depend on other people’s work to make a living. differences between Jefferson wrote, “Our governments will remain virtuous [pure] for Hamilton and many centuries; as long as they are chiefly agricultural.” Jefferson wanted Jefferson concerning the power of the to help farmers by keeping the costs of the goods they bought low. Lower nation’s government? tariffs would help keep prices low. A National Bank Hamilton’s and Jefferson’s differences became more and more public in early 1791. The two men had very different opinions about how the gov- ernment should approach its economic problems. Hamilton’s Plan for a National Bank Hamilton wanted to start a national bank where the government could safely deposit its money. The bank would also make loans to the government and businesses. Hamilton also thought that the United States should build a national mint, a place to make coins. Then the country could begin issuing its own currency. Hamilton knew that people who wanted to protect states’ rights might have a strong reaction to the idea of a national bank, so he suggested limit- ing it to a 20-year charter. After that time Congress could decide whether to extend the charter. Hamilton also asked each state to start its own bank so the national bank would not have a monopoly. Launching the Nation 253  Jefferson Opposes the Bank Both Jefferson and Madison believed that Hamilton’s plans for the economy gave too much power to the federal gov- ernment. They also thought the U.S. Constitution did not give Congress the power to create a bank. But Hamilton quoted the elastic clause, which states that Congress can “make all laws which shall be necessary and proper” to govern the nation. Hamilton declared that the clause allowed the government to create a national bank. Hamilton believed in loose construction of the Constitu- tion. Loose construction means that the federal government can take reasonable actions that the Constitution does not specifically forbid. Jefferson thought that the elastic clause should be used only in special cases. He wrote to President Washington, “The Constitution allows only the means which are ‘necessary,’ not those which are merely ‘convenient.’” Jefferson believed in strict construction of the Constitution. People who favor strict construction think that the federal government should do only what the Constitution specifically says it can do. Reading Check President Washington and Congress agreed with Hamilton. They hoped Draw Conclusions a bank would offer stability for the U.S. economy. In February 1791 Why did Congress Congress enacted the charter for the Bank of the United States—the and the president agree to create a country’s first national bank. The bank played an important role in national bank? making the U.S. economy more stable. Summary and Preview Washington and Hamilton developed plans for paying the national debt. In the next lesson you will read about the U.S. neutrality policy. Lesson 2 Assessment Review Ideas, Terms, and People b. Contrast What is the difference between loose construction and strict construction of the 1. a. Describe What economic problems did the new Constitution? government face? c. Elaborate Defend Alexander Hamilton’s stance in b. Summarize What compromise did Alexander favor of the creation of a national bank. Hamilton, Thomas Jefferson, and James Madison reach regarding repayment of state debts? Critical Thinking 2. a. Identify What disagreement did Jefferson and Hamilton have over the central government? 4. Identify Solutions In this lesson you learned about U.S. economic problems and Hamilton’s solutions. b. Draw Conclusions Hamilton was a New Yorker, Create a chart similar to the one below and use it to while Jefferson was from Virginia. How do you think show how Hamilton’s views on the economy differed that affected their views on the economy? from those of Thomas Jefferson. c. Elaborate Do you agree with Hamilton or Jefferson regarding the average citizen’s ability to make Hamilton Jefferson decisions for the country? Explain your answer. Bonds 3. a. Recall Why did Jefferson oppose the creation of the Economy Bank of the United States? Tariffs National Bank 254 Module 7  Lesson 3 Challenges for the New Nation If YOU were there... The Big Idea You are the captain of an American merchant ship in the The United States faced signifi- 1790s. Your ship has just picked up cargo in the French cant foreign and domestic West Indies. You are headed back to your home port of challenges under Washington. Philadelphia. Suddenly, a British warship pulls alongside your ship. Marines swarm aboard. They order you into Main Ideas the nearest harbor and seize your goods. The United States tried to remain neutral regarding How would this incident affect events in Europe. your views of Great Britain? The United States and Native Americans came into conflict in the Northwest Territory. Remaining Neutral Tensions between France and Great Britain began to build after The Whiskey Rebellion tested the French people rebelled against their king. On July 14, 1789, Washington’s administration. citizens of Paris attacked and captured the Bastille, a hated for- In his Farewell Address, tress and prison that stood as a mighty symbol of royal power. Washington advised the nation. The storming of the Bastille was one of the first acts of the French Revolution—a rebellion of French people against their Key Terms and People king in 1789. The French people overthrew their king and cre- French Revolution ated a republican government. Neutrality Proclamation Many French citizens had been inspired to take action by the privateers American Revolution. Many Americans, in turn, supported Jay’s Treaty Pinckney’s Treaty the French Revolution. They thought that France was creating Little Turtle the same kind of democracy as the United States. Battle of Fallen Timbers Some Americans worried about the French Revolution’s Treaty of Greenville violent riots and attacks on traditional authority. Revolutionar- Whiskey Rebellion ies shocked many Americans by beheading King Louis XVI in January 1793 and Queen Marie-Antoinette later that year. A few years after the French Revolution started, France and Great Britain went to war. Some Americans supported Academic the French, while others backed the British. Some wanted to Vocabulary remain neutral. neutral unbiased, not favoring either The Neutrality Proclamation The debate divided Congress and side in a conflict Washington’s cabinet. Washington presented his opinion to Congress on April 22, 1793: Launching the Nation 255  “The duty and interest of the United States require that they should with sincerity and good faith adopt and pursue a conduct friendly and impartial [unbiased] towards the belligerent [fighting] powers.” —George Washington, from The Writings of George Washington This Neutrality Proclamation stated that the United States would not take sides with any European countries that were at war. Washington believed his plan was the safest for the long run, but not everyone agreed. Some members of Congress criticized Washington’s ideas. James Madi- son believed that the president had gone beyond his authority. He ques- tioned Washington’s right to issue the proclamation without the approval of Congress. The French Question France’s new representative to the United States, Edmond Genet (zhuh-NAY), asked American sailors to help France fight England by commanding privateers. Privateers were private ships hired by a country to attack its enemies. Washington told Genet that using American privateers violated U.S. neutrality. Jefferson wanted the French revolutionaries to succeed, but even he agreed that allowing France to use American privateers against England was a bad idea. Jefferson was still upset by U.S. policy toward France. He believed that the United States should back France because France had supported the United States during the Revolutionary War. Hamilton, on the other hand, was pro-British. He hoped to strengthen trading ties with Britain—the most powerful trading nation in the world at the time. Jefferson thought Timeline: The Struggle for Neutrality 1789 1795 April 1789 July 1789 October 1790 April 1793 November 1794 August 1795 October 1795 George French British-backed President Jay’s Treaty sparks The Treaty of Pinckney’s Washington citizens storm Little Turtle defeats Washington protest throughout Greenville ends Treaty reopens becomes the Bastille. U.S. forces under issues the the United States. fighting in the the port of New president. General Josiah Neutrality Northwest Orleans. Harmar. Proclamation. Territory. Interpret Timelines To what extent was President Washington successful in maintaining American neutrality? 256 Module 7  that Hamilton had too much influence on the president’s foreign policy and that Hamilton interfered with Jefferson’s role as secretary of state. Jefferson decided to resign from Washington’s cabinet in 1793. Jay’s Treaty There were other threats to U.S. neutrality. In late 1793 the British seized ships carrying food to the French West Indies. Hundreds of the ships were neutral American merchant ships. Also, British officers were helping Native Americans fight settlers. Washington wanted to prevent another war with the British. He sent Chief Justice John Jay to London to work out a compromise. The Brit- ish knew the United States lacked a strong navy and that U.S. businesses relied heavily on British trade. However, the British did not want to fight another war in America. In November 1794 the two sides signed Jay’s Treaty. Jay’s Treaty settled the disputes that had arisen between the United States and Great Britain in the early 1790s. The British would pay damages on seized American ships and abandon their forts on the northwestern frontier. The United States agreed to pay debts it owed the British. The treaty was unpopular and sparked violent protests. Citizens and congressional leaders thought the treaty hurt trade and did not punish Britain enough for some of its actions. Southerners were especially angry that the treaty did not ask Britain to repay them for slaves that Britain had set free during the Revolutionary War. Washington did not like the treaty but believed it was the most that could be done. At his urging the Senate approved the treaty. Pinckney’s Treaty American businesses faced problems as well. The Spanish disputed the border between the United States and Florida. Spain closed the port of New Orleans to U.S. trade in 1784. This hurt the Ameri- can economy because all goods moving down the Mississippi to places in the East or overseas had to pass through New Orleans. Washington asked Ambassador Thomas Pinckney to meet with Span- ish officials to discuss the problem. He asked the Spaniards to reopen New Orleans to U.S. trade. Pinckney also asked for the right of deposit in New Orleans. This right would allow American boats to transfer goods in New Orleans without paying cargo fees. Spanish minister Manuel de Godoy (goh THOY) tried to delay reaching an agreement, hoping Pinckney would become desperate and sign a treaty that favored the Spanish. He was worried that the United States and Great Britain might join against Spain after signing Jay’s Treaty. Pinckney was patient, however, and his patience was rewarded. In October 1795 Godoy agreed to Pinckney’s Treaty, which settled the border and trade disputes with Spain. Under the treaty Spain agreed to Reading Check recognize the U.S. southern boundary as 31° north latitude. Spain’s gov- Summarize Why ernment also reopened the port at New Orleans to American ships and did President gave them the right of deposit. Because it opened the frontier to more Washington want the United States to expansion, Washington and most other Americans believed that Pinckney’s remain neutral? Treaty was a successful compromise. Launching the Nation 257  Explore ONLINE! Pinckney’s Treaty 0 100 200 Miles N 0 100 200 Kilometers E SPANISH UNITED STATES W TERRITORY S Pinckney’s Treaty, 1795 31°N 30°N New Orleans 80°W Gulf of Mexico Interpret Maps 1. Location About90°W how far south was New Orleans from the U.S. border established by Pinckney’s Treaty? HRW Middle School American History ah06se_c06leg012a.ai Conflict in the Northwest Territory Spanish and US Territories Map As Area 27p6 wide the United x 16p high States dealt with international conflicts, trouble was also brewing at home. Americans continued to settle the Northwest Territory 2nd proof date - 10/18/04 despite 11/09/04 Approved: Native Americans’ protests. Supplied by British traders with guns, Native Americans went to war. In 1790 a Native American alliance under the command of Miami chief Little Turtle defeated U.S. forces under General HMH—Middle Josiah School Harmar. U.S. History—2016 Then, in 1791 Native Americans defeated General Arthur St. MS_SNLESE454149_846M.ai Clair’s troops. Spanish and US Territories Map Area: 27p6 wide x 16p high General Wayne Takes Command In 1792 President Washington gave com- First Proof 03/07/16 mand of the army in the West to General Anthony Wayne. Wayne’s task was to bring troops to the frontier to fight against the Indians. In 1793 General Wayne arrived in Ohio. Many of his men were ill from smallpox and influ- enza, so they were unable to fight well. Wayne’s troops moved north and built Fort Greenville, where they remained during the winter. They built additional forts for protection and to have supplies at hand. As the summer of 1794 neared, several Native American groups led by Little Turtle attacked a supply train near the fort. Wayne and his men responded. They attacked Native American towns and burned crops. The British no longer aided the Native Americans after this defeat, and Little Turtle realized that he was outmatched. He urged his people to seek peace. “The trail has been long and bloody; it has no end. The [whites]... are many. They are like the leaves of the trees. When the frost comes they Little Turtle, also known as Michikinikwa, was a Miami fall and are blown away. But when the sunshine comes again they chief who won many battles come back more plentiful than ever before.” against the United States, but —Little Turtle, quoted in The Ohio Frontier by Douglas Hurt eventually called for peace. 258 Module 7  Explore ONLINE! 'JHIUJOH
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5FSSJUPSZ The End of Conflict On August 20, 1794, Native Americans fought Wayne’s troops in the Battle of Fallen Timbers and were defeated. The battle was named for an area where many trees had been destroyed by a tornado. Wayne’s forces burned Indians’ villages and fields. The strength of Indian forces in the region was broken. The frontier war soon ended. In August 1795 Native American leaders signed the Treaty of Greenville, which gave the United States claim to Reading Check most Indian lands in the Northwest Territory. The treaty also guaran- Find Main Ideas teed the safety of citizens there. In exchange, Native Americans received What conflicts did the United States face in $20,000 worth of goods and an acknowledgment of their claim to the the late 1700s? lands they still held. The Whiskey Rebellion Other conflicts were happening on the frontier. Congress passed a tax on American-made whiskey in March 1791. The tax was part of Hamilton’s plan to raise money to help pay the federal debt. He was also testing the power of the federal government to control the states’ actions. Reaction in the West People in the western parts of states such as Penn- sylvania, Virginia, and North Carolina were bitter about the tax. They were -BVODIJOH
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/BUJPO 259  already angry with the federal government, which they believed did not protect settlers from Native American attacks and did not allow set- tlers enough opportunities for trade. The farmers’ corn crops were often made into whiskey, which was easier to transport than the corn. Because cash was rare, whiskey became like money in their Protesters tar region. The farmers believed that the tax was aimed specifically at them. and feather a tax collector during the Farmers who produced small amounts of whiskey for trade argued that Whiskey Rebellion in they could not afford the tax. They believed they should be able to keep Pennsylvania. the money they had made from a product they created themselves. Pro- tests in 1792 led President Washington to issue a proclamation saying that people had to obey the law. Westerners also disliked the fact that cases about the law were to be tried in a district court. These courts were usually far away from the people they affected and were a great inconvenience to them. Whiskey Rebellion Is Crushed The complaints of western Pennsylvanians were at first expressed peacefully. But by 1794 fighting had broken out. In what became known as the Whiskey Rebellion, farmers lashed out against the tax on whiskey. Protesters refused to pay the tax. They even tarred and feathered tax collectors. Some called themselves the new Sons of Liberty. Incidents of violence spread to other states. President Washington feared that the rebels threatened the federal government’s authority. He believed he needed to make people understand that the Constitution gave Congress the right to pass and enforce the tax. Washington declared that he could “no longer remain a passive [inac- Reading Check Support Points of tive] spectator” in the event. He personally led the army in military action View Defend the against the rebellion—the first and only time an American president has viewpoint of the done so. The army of about 13,000 men approached western Pennsylvania Pennsylvania farmers who did not want to in November 1794. By this time most of the rebels had fled. The Whiskey pay the whiskey tax. Rebellion ended without a battle. Washington Says Farewell In 1796 Washington decided not to run for a third presidential term. He wrote that he was “tired of public life” and “devoutly [strongly] wished for retirement.” He also wanted to remind Americans that the people were the country’s true leaders. His decision to serve for only two terms set an example for future presidents. With the help of Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, Washington wrote his Farewell Address. In it he spoke about what he believed were the greatest dangers to the American republic. Among these were the dangers of foreign ties and political conflicts at home. Washington warned against forming permanent ties with other countries because choosing sides could draw the United States into war. Washington also worried about growing political conflicts within the nation. He believed that the disagreements between political groups weak- ened government. Political unity, he said, was a key to national success. 260 Module 7 DOCUMENTBASED INVESTIGATION Historical Source Washington’s Farewell Address On September 19, 1796, President George Washington’s Farewell Address first appeared in a Philadelphia newspaper. In it, Washington wrote about the nation’s economy, political parties, and foreign policy. While, then, every part of our country... feels an immediate and particular interest in union, all the parts combined cannot fail to find in the united mass... greater strength, greater resource, proportionally Washington greater security from external danger, [and] a less frequent interruption lists the benefits of their peace by foreign nations;... of uniting the states under one I have already intimated1 to you the danger of [political] parties in the government. state, with particular reference to the founding of them on geographical discriminations2. Let me now take a more comprehensive3 view, and warn you in the most solemn manner against the baneful4 effects of the spirit of party, generally. In this phrase, If, in the opinion of the people, the distribution or modification5 of the Washington constitutional powers be in any particular wrong, let it be corrected by an emphasizes his warning against amendment... the dangers of Promote, then, as an object of primary importance, institutions for political parties. the general diffusion6 of knowledge... As the structure of a government gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public opinion should be enlightened... [Avoid] likewise the accumulation of debt,... not ungenerously throwing Washington points upon posterity7 the burden, which we ourselves ought to bear... out the need for education. Observe good faith and justice toward all nations; cultivate8 peace and harmony with all... The great rule of conduct for us, in regard to foreign nations, is... to This is Washington’s have with them as little political connection as possible. advice to the new It is our true policy to steer clear of permanent alliances with any nation about foreign policy. portion of the foreign world... There can be no greater error than to expect, or calculate9 upon real favors from nation to nation. It is an illusion, which experience must cure, which a just pride ought to discard. The duty of holding a neutral conduct may be inferred... from the obligation which justice and humanity impose on every nation... to maintain inviolate10 the relations of peace and amity11 towards other nations. 1 intimated: told 5 modification: change 8 cultivate: seek 2 discriminations: differences 6 diffusion: spreading 9 calculate: plan 3 comprehensive: complete 7 posterity: future 10 inviolate: unchanging 4 baneful: destructive generations 11 amity: friendship Analyze Historical Sources 1. What events happened that might have led to Washington’s warning against political parties? 2. Why did Washington suggest neutrality as a foreign policy? Launching the Nation 261  Washington left office warning the nation to work out its differences and protect its independence. Washington also warned against too much public Reading Check Find Main Ideas debt. He thought the government should try not to borrow money. He What issues did wanted future generations to be protected from debt. Washington believe He concluded his speech by looking forward to his retirement and prais- were most dangerous to the future of the ing his country. “I anticipate... the sweet enjoyment... of good laws new nation? under a free government, the ever favorite object of my heart.” Summary and Preview Americans responded to foreign and domestic conflict during Washington’s presidency. In the next lesson you will read about the formation of political parties in the United States and the presi- dency of John Adams. Lesson 3 Assessment Review Ideas, Terms, and People 4. a. Describe What warnings did Washington give the nation in his Farewell Address? 1. a. Describe What did Washington’s Neutrality Proclamation state? b. Draw Conclusions Why did Washington not run for a third term as president? b. Compare and Contrast In what ways were Jay’s Treaty and Pinckney’s Treaty similar and different? Critical Thinking 2. a. Identify Who were the leaders of American Indian and U.S. forces in the conflict in the Northwest 5. Categorize In this lesson you learned about the chal- Territory? lenges the young United States faced. Create a chart similar to the one below and then categorize those b. Predict What are some possible consequences of challenges as either foreign or domestic. the Treaty of Greenville for American Indians in the Northwest Territory? Challenges 3. a. Recall Why did Congress tax American-made Foreign whiskey? Domestic b. Explain How did the tax lead to the Whiskey Rebellion? c. Elaborate Why do you think that President Washington personally led the army against westerners in the Whiskey Rebellion? 262 Module 7  Lesson 4 John Adams’s Presidency If YOU were there... The Big Idea You are a newspaper editor in Virginia in 1798. You’ve The development of political par- joined Jefferson’s political party, which opposes the new ties in the United States contrib- president. In fact, your paper has printed many articles uted to differing ideas about the that criticize him, calling him greedy and foolish. You role of the federal government. believe that’s your right in a free country. But now Con- Main Ideas gress has passed a law that makes it illegal to criticize the government. You could be arrested for your articles! The rise of political parties created competition in the Would you stop criticizing election of 1796. the government? Why? The XYZ affair caused prob- lems for President John Adams. The Election of 1796 Controversy broke out over the The election of 1796 began a new era in U.S. politics. For Alien and Sedition Acts. the first time, more than one candidate ran for president. Key Terms and People Political parties, groups that help elect people and shape political parties policies, had begun to form during Washington’s presidency. Federalist Party Despite Washington’s warnings about political parties, the Democratic-Republican Party rivalry between two parties dominated the 1796 election. XYZ affair Alexander Hamilton helped found the Federalist Party, Alien and Sedition Acts Kentucky and Virginia which wanted a strong federal government and supported Resolutions industry and trade. The Federalists chose John Adams and Thomas Pinckney as candidates. Adams knew he was not well liked in the South or the West, but he hoped people would support him after they thought about his years of loyal public service. The Federalists, who wanted a strong Federalists/North federal government, were more popular in the North. Alexander Hamilton John Adams John Jay Launching the Nation 263  Explore ONLINE! The First Political Parties, 1796 Federalist (Adams) Democratic- Republican VT (Jefferson) 4 NH 6 MA NY 16 11 Number of 12 electoral votes 0 150 300 Miles RI 4 0 150 300 Kilometers PA CT 9 DR-14 NJ F-1 7 TERRITORY NORTHWEST DE 3 70°W OF OHIO RIVER VA MD DR-20 DR-4 F-7 KY F-1 4 NC DR-11 TN F-1 3 SC 8 ah06se_c06map011ga_leg.ai SOUTHWEST GA Federalists & Republicans Legend TERRITORY 4 Map Live Area: 8.25" wide x 5.5" high + 10p each side final proof: 08/26/04 Final 8/24/2015 Interpret Maps Region Which political party had N more electoral votes in 1796? 90°W W E S Thomas Jefferson and James Madison founded the Democratic- Republican Party. Its members, called Republicans, wanted to limit the federal government’s power. (This party is not related to today’s Republican Party.) They chose Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr as their candidates. Party differences were based partly on where and how people lived. Businesspeople in the cities tended to support the Federalists. Farmers in more isolated areas generally favored the Democratic-Republicans. Both 6 sides attacked each other. Republicans called Adams a royalist—an insult to a man so involved in the Revolution. The Federalists accused the Repub- each side licans of favoring the French. The Republicans, who wanted to limit the federal Republicans/South government’s power, were more popular in the South. Thomas Jefferson James Madison Albert Gallatin 264 Module 7  In the end, Adams defeated Jefferson. At the time, the person who came in second in a presidential election became vice president. So, after months of campaigning against one another, Adams and Jefferson took office Reading Check together. Find Main Ideas How did the election of 1796 change the President Adams and the XYZ Affair nature of politics in John Adams had the challenging task of following Washington as presi- the United States? dent. The people had adored Washington. Adams would have to work hard to win the people’s trust. A New President At first glance, John Adams did not appear well suited for the presidency. Although Adams had been a leading Patriot during the American Revolution and had later served as a foreign diplomat, he lacked Washington’s dignity, and most people saw him as a cold and distant per- son. Still, many people—even those who opposed him—respected Adams. They recognized his hard work, honesty, and intelligence. The United States and France One of Adams’s first goals as president was to improve the relationship between the United States and France. With Great Britain and France still at war, the French had begun harassing and seizing U.S. ships. Adams sent U.S. diplomats to Paris to smooth over the conflict and to negotiate a treaty to protect U.S. shipping. When the diplomats arrived in France, they learned that French foreign minister Talleyrand would not speak to them. Instead, they had a strange and secret visit from three French agents. Shockingly, the agents said that Talleyrand would discuss a treaty only in exchange for a $250,000 bribe. The French government also wanted a loan of $12 million. The amazed diplomats refused these demands. In March 1798 President Adams told Congress that the peace-seeking mission had failed. He described the French terms, substituting the letters X, Y, and Z for the names of the French agents. Upon hearing the disgrace- ful news, Federalists in Congress called for war with France. The XYZ affair, as the French demand for a bribe came to be called, outraged the American public. “Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute!” became the rallying cry of the American people. Preparations for War Fearing war, Adams asked Congress to expand the navy to a fleet of more than 30 ships. He thought war with France might be unavoidable. He also decided the United States should keep a peacetime army. Congress approved both measures. Although Adams had asked Congress for military support, he did not want to go to war with France. He was worried about its cost. Therefore, he did not ask Congress to declare war. Instead, he tried to reopen peace talks with France. Peace Efforts Adams’s decision not to declare war stunned Federalists. Despite intense pressure from members of his own party, Adams refused to change his mind. Launching the Nation 265  Historical Source The XYZ Affair After the XYZ affair, French ships continued to attack American ships. In this political cartoon, the United States is represented by the woman. The men, representing the French, are taking valuables from her. The people in the distance are other European nations. Why do you think this man is encouraging the woman to look away? These people aren’t helping the Analyze Historical Sources woman. What do you think the How does the political cartoon show that cartoon is suggesting by this? America is being preyed upon by the French? American and French ships, however, began fighting each other in the Caribbean. Adams sent a representative to France to engage in talks to try to end the fighting. The United States and France eventually signed a treaty. Adams then forced two members of his cabinet to resign for trying Reading Check to block his peace efforts. Identify Points of View What did Americans mean The Alien and Sedition Acts when they said Many Democratic-Republicans continued to sympathize with France. Fed- “Millions for defense, eralists, angered by their stand, called them “democrats, mobocrats, and but not one cent for tribute”? all other kinds of rats.” In 1798 the Federalist-controlled Congress passed four laws known together as the Alien and Sedition Acts. These laws were said to protect the United States, but the Federalists intended them to crush opposition to war. The most controversial of these laws was the Sedition Act, which forbade anyone from publishing or voicing criticism of the federal govern- ment. In effect, this canceled basic protections of freedom of speech and freedom of the press. The two main Democratic-Republican leaders, Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, viewed these acts as a misuse of the government’s power. Attacking the problem at the state level, they wrote resolutions passed by the Kentucky legislature in 1798 and by Virginia in 1799. Known as the 266 Module 7  Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, these documents argued that the Alien and Sedition Acts were unconstitutional. They stated that the fed- eral government could not pass these acts because they interfered with state government. Madison and Jefferson pressured Congress to repeal the Alien and Sedition Acts. Congress did not, although it allowed the acts to Reading Check Analyze expire within a few years. Information How The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions did not have the force of did the Kentucky and national law, but they supported the idea that states could challenge the Virginia Resolutions support the rights federal government. This idea would grow to have a tremendous impact on of states? American history later in the 1800s. Summary and Preview Political parties formed to reflect different viewpoints. In the next lesson you will read about Thomas Jefferson’s presidency. Lesson 4 Assessment Review Ideas, Terms, and People b. Explain What idea regarding states’ rights did the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions support? 1. a. Recall What two political parties emerged before the election of 1796? Who were the founders of each c. Elaborate Would you have supported the Alien and party? Sedition Acts? Explain your answer. b. Analyze What effect did political parties have on Critical Thinking the election of 1796? c. Elaborate Do you think it was difficult for Adams 4. Contrast In this lesson you learned about the election and Jefferson to serve together as president and vice of 1796 and the formation of political parties. Create president? Explain your answer. a chart similar to the one below and then identify how each of the terms listed below reflected party 2. a. Recall What was one of Adams’s first goals as disagreements. president? b. Make Inferences Why were Federalists shocked XYZ Affair by Adams’s decision to resume peace talks with the Alien and Sedition Acts French? Kentucky and Virginia 3. a. Identify What did the Alien and Sedition Acts state? Resolutions Launching the Nation 267  Lesson 5 Jefferson Becomes President If YOU were there... The Big Idea You are a Maryland voter from a frontier district—and Thomas Jefferson’s election you are tired! For days, you and your friends have been began a new era in American wrangling over the presidential election. Who shall government. it be—John Adams or Thomas Jefferson? Your vote depends on your personal judgment. Main Ideas The election of 1800 marked Which candidate would you the first peaceful transition in choose for president? power from one political party to another. The Election of 1800 President Jefferson’s beliefs about the federal government In the presidential election of 1800, Federalists John Adams were reflected in his policies. and Charles C. Pinckney ran against Democratic-Republicans Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr. Each party believed that Marbury v. Madison increased the power of the judicial