Chanakya & Confucius: Ancient Indian and Chinese Political Thought PDF

 Chanakya & Confucius  Chanakya “Also known as Kautilya was the key advisor to— and the genius of the strategy undertaken by—the king Chan...

 Chanakya & Confucius  Chanakya “Also known as Kautilya was the key advisor to— and the genius of the strategy undertaken by—the king Chandragupta Maurya (c. 317-293 B.C.E.), who defeated the Nanda kings, stopped the advance of Alexander the Great’s successors, and first united the Indian subcontinent in empire. Kautilya, sometimes called chancellor or prime minister to Chandragupta, composed his Arthashastra, or “science of politics,” to tell a wise king how to defeat one’s enemies and rule on behalf of the general good. He was not modest in his claims as to how much he helped Chandragupta. “This science has been composed by him [Kautilya], who in resentment, quickly regenerated the science and the weapon and [conquered] the earth that was under control of the Nanda kings.” Claiming only that he “regenerated” the arthashastra, Kautilya openly borrowed from previous works.” During the 5th and 4th centuries BCE, the Nanda dynasty slowly gained control over the northern half of the Indian subcontinent, defeating its rivals one by one and holding off the threat of invasion by the Greeks and Persians from the west. The rulers of this expanding empire relied on generals for tactical advice in battle, but they also began to recognize the value of ministers to advise on matters of policy and government. Scholars, especially those from Takshashila, a university established c.600 BCE in Rawalpindi, now part of Pakistan, frequently became these ministers. Many important thinkers developed their ideas at Takshashila, but perhaps the most significant was Chanakya (also known as Kautilya and Vishnugupta). He wrote a treatise on statecraft titled Arthashastra, meaning “the science of material gain” or “the art of polity.” Arthashastra combined the accumulated wisdom of the art of politics with Chanakya’s own ideas, and was remarkable in its dispassionate, and at times ruthless, analysis of the business of politics. 04 Chanakya’s political ideas For him the state was above everything else and in some cases, there was no harm in using underhand means in politics. For him politics was a scientific subject and it required wisdom to be a good politician. State activities should concentrate on dharma. He favoured the idea of powerful monarchy and as such believed that the king should pose to be powerful and strong. The activities of neighbouring states should be carefully watched because at any time they become dangerous. State should always be ready to wage war. The king must follow a policy of expansion. He wanted to create a strong empire at the cost of the then existing weak state. For Kautilya, the sphere of state activity was quite comprehensive. It should perform both civil and military functions. Kautilya believed in seven elements of state viz, swamin ( lord or sovereign ), amatya ( minister ), janapada ( territory as well as population ), durga ( fort ), kosha ( treasury ), bala ( army ), and mitra ( ally). The swamin could be one person or a number of persons. Swamin of Kautilya was not a feudal chieftain but a veritable sovereign owing allegiance to none. The second element of state is Amatya. Amatya must be a native of the country and possess steadfast devotion towards the Swamin. The third element of state was janapada, Kautilya implied by its territory as well as population. Fourth element of the state is Durga or fort. He considered fort as a vital part of the empire. Kosha or the treasury was the fifth element of state. He attached great importance to the growth of the treasury. The sixth element of state was bala or army. Kautilya defines six types of armies - hereditary forces, hired troops, soldiers for fighting corporation, troops belonging to an ally, troops belonging to an enemy, and soldiers of wild tribes. The last component of the state is mitra or ally. He envisaged two types of allies, sahaja and kritrima. Sahaja mitra consists of persons whose friendship was derived from the time of father and grandfather and were situated close to the territory of the immediately neighbouring enemy. The kritrima ally on the other hand was an acquired ally whose friendship was resorted for the protection of wealth and life. He held that the ally of the first category was superior to the ally of the second category. It was expected of a king to be energetic and ready to serve people. He suggested that the government should have various departments, each headed by a minister. For Kautilya, the sphere of state activity was quite comprehensive. It should perform both civil and military functions. It should also encourage cultural activities. State should control all mines and metals. State has to control and regulate commerce and industry. State was required to see that the ordinary consumer was not put on any disadvantageous position. Superintendent in charge was required to check under weighing or under measuring. The state was required to control the sale of liquor and wine. 05  Chanakya’s political ideas Although sections of the treatise dealt with the moral qualities desirable in the leader of a state, the emphasis was on the practical, describing in direct terms how power could be gained and maintained, and for the first time in India, it explicitly described a civil structure in which ministers and advisors played a key role in the running of the state. A commitment to the prosperity of the state lies at the heart of Chanakya’s political thought, and he makes repeated references to the welfare of the people as the ultimate goal of government. This, he believed, was the responsibility of a sovereign who would ensure his people’s well- being and security by administering order and justice and leading his country to victory over rival states. The power to carry out his duties to his country and its people is dependent on several different factors, which Chanakya describes in Arthashastra: the personal qualities of the ruler, the abilities of his advisors, his territory and towns, his wealth, his army, and his allies. The sovereign, as head of state, has the central role in this system of government. Chanakya emphasizes the importance of finding a ruler with the appropriate qualities, but then goes on to say that personal qualities of leadership are not sufficient on their own: the sovereign must also be trained for the job. He must learn the various skills of statecraft, such as military tactics and strategy, law, administration, and the arts of diplomacy and politics, but in addition he should be taught the skills of self-discipline and ethics in order to develop the moral authority necessary to command the loyalty and obedience of his people. Before taking office, the sovereign needs assistance from experienced and knowledgeable teachers. Once instated, a wise sovereign does not rely solely on his own wisdom but can turn to trusted ministers and advisors for counsel. In Chanakya’s view, such individuals are as important as the sovereign in governing the state. In Arthashastra, Chanakya states: “Governance is possible only with assistance—a single wheel does not move.” This is a warning to the sovereign not to be autocratic, but to arrive at decisions of state after consulting his ministers. The appointment of ministers with the necessary qualifications is therefore just as important as the people’s choice of leader. The ministers can provide a range of knowledge and skills. They must be utterly trustworthy, not only so that the sovereign can rely on their advice, but also to ensure that decisions are made in the interests of the state and its people—if necessary, preventing a corrupt ruler from acting in his own interests. It was this recognition of the realities of human nature that distinguished Chanakya from other Indian political philosophers of the time. Arthashastra is not a work of moral philosophy, but a practical guide to governance, and in ensuring the welfare and security of the state it often advocates using whatever means are necessary. Although Arthashastra advocates a regime of learning and self- discipline for an ideal ruler, and mentions certain moral qualities, it doesn’t flinch from describing how to use underhanded methods to gain and maintain power. Chanakya was a shrewd observer of human weaknesses as well as strengths, and he was not above exploiting these to increase the sovereign’s power and undermine that of the sovereign’s enemies. This is particularly noticeable in his advice on defending and acquiring territory. Here he recommends that the ruler and his ministers should carefully assess the strength of their enemies before deciding on a strategy to undermine them. They can then choose from a number of different tactics, ranging from conciliation, encouraging dissent in the enemy’s ranks, and forming alliances of convenience with other rulers, to the simple use of military force. In deploying these tactics, the ruler should be ruthless, using trickery, bribery, and any other inducements deemed necessary. Although this seems contradictory to the moral authority Chanakya advocates in a leader, he stipulates that after victory has been achieved, the ruler should “substitute his virtues for the defeated enemy’s vices, and where the enemy was good, he shall be twice as good.” 06 The works of Chanakya The Arthashastra The work has been described by many historians as the most significant treatise on the science of wealth (acquisition of artha) and the science of politics. Unarguably, the Arthashastra provides an amazing material not only for those who are interested in theoretical political research but also for those engaged in politics in practice and in making and administering public policies and decisions. The Arthashastra acts as a practical guide and assists the king to rule, guiding him in almost every detail of administration. Kautilya’s Arthashastra treats not only the domain matters of political science but also the issues falling in the territory of history, philosophy, economics, public administration, geography, strategic studies and management, creating interest in the minds of several scholars of these branches of knowledge as well. However, the publication of the translation of the stupendous nature of his work, the Arthashastra, in 1915, after the completion of its translation in 1909 by Rudrapatna Shamasastry, laid the foundations of study and research pertaining to the Kautilyan contribution to political theory and practice of governance and administration during the Mauryan rule, circa 321–297 BCE, controversy over the age and authorship of the book notwithstanding. The interest of the political scientists in the Arthashastra can be attributed to the analysis therein of the vast range of areas of political theory—the origin, nature and functions of the state; the society–state relations; bureaucracy; interstate relations; strategic culture; and defense and security in addition to the discussion about various political concepts that have become a focal point in the teaching and research in modern times such as justice, law and authority, and gender justice. Regarding power, the study points out the three basic sources from where the king derives his power and authority: prabhavashakti (the power of the army and the treasury) apart from mantrashakti (advice from the mantriparishad and of the wise) and the utsah shakti (charisma and energy of the king). Elaborating the concept of power referred to in the book, Arthashastra refers to both the substance and the purpose of political power. If power is taken as an essence of kingdoms and as authority to enable the ruler to take decisions, then this book tells you in a rigorous and rational manner about the type of substance power, what it might do in the world and how to put it to best use—if you happen to be a king—to consolidate your own power, keep rivals in check and take care of your people. 07  The works of Chanakya This book is an endeavour to comprehend the diverse aspects of power as enunciated by Kautilya with reference to the nature and role conditioning the political behaviour and policy decision-making by the king pertaining to prosperity and well-being of his people and the conduct of interstate relations; the aim and substance of power; and the dangers of vesting the king with excessive/absolute power apart from suggesting the ways and means to enhance and consolidate power of the state in the interest of peace, stability and security. The study proposes a fresh look at some dimensions of political theory, if not all, as developed by Kautilya with reference to both its antiquity and modern context since Indian tradition of political thought will, in my view, form an important part of the studies of non-European political theory and textbooks, here in India and abroad. It may be stated at the outset that the greatest contribution of Kautilya, and a unique one, was that he developed a unified and integrated view of the state. In the words of Naresha Duraiswamy, ‘The Arthashastra provided a political philosophy to unify previously small political units, weld divergent groups into a broader cohesive identity and integrate diverse linguistic groups. The emphasis on the common weal was intended to cement a diverse and heterogeneous population. The end goal was social cohesion’. In fact, the Arthashastra provides an opportunity to the student of politics to know the archetypal political thought that exposes him to the idea of Hindu political theory similar to the one presented by Plato in his Republic in the case of ancient Greece. Kautilya was the first ancient political thinker who adopted a scientific approach in his writings on the science of politics and economics. The text of Arthashastra was rediscovered in the early 20th century, and regained some of its importance in Indian political thinking, gaining iconic status after India won independence from Great Britain in 1948. Despite its central place in Indian political history, it was little known in the West, and it is only recently that Chanakya has been recognized outside India as a significant political thinker. All things begin with counsel. A snake might not be poisonous but will always show up as venomous. 8  Confucius According to tradition, Confucius was born in 551 BCE in Qufu, in the state of Lu, China. His name was originally Kong Qiu, and only later did he earn the title Kong Fuzi, or “Master Kong.” Little is known about his life, except that he was from a well-to-do family, and that as a young man he worked as a servant to support his family after his father died. He nevertheless managed to find time to study, and became an administrator in the Zhou court, but when his suggestions to the rulers were ignored he left to concentrate on teaching. Confucius, lived during a turning point in China’s political history. He lived at the end of China’s Spring and Autumn period— around 300 years of prosperity and stability during which there was a flowering of art, literature, and in particular, philosophy. This gave rise to the so-called Hundred Schools of Thought, in which a wide range of ideas was freely discussed. In the process, a new class of thinkers and scholars emerged, most of them based in the courts of noble families, as valued advisors. The influence of these scholars’ new ideas inspired a shake-up of the structure of Chinese society. The scholars were appointed on merit rather than due to family connections, and this new meritocratic class of scholars was a challenge to the hereditary rulers, who had previously governed with what they believed was a mandate from Heaven. This caused a series of conflicts as various rulers vied for control over China. During this era, which became known as the Warring States period, it became increasingly clear that a strong system of government was necessary. From 770 to 220 BCE, China enjoyed an era of great cultural development, and the philosophies that emerged at this time were known as the Hundred Schools of Thought. By the 6th century BCE, the Zhou Dynasty was in decline— moving from the stability of the Spring and Autumn Period to the aptly named Warring States Period— and it was during this time that Kong Fuzi, the Master Kong, or Confucius, was born. Like other philosophers of the age—such as Thales, Pythagoras, and Heraclitus of Greece—Confucius sought constants in a world of change, and for him this meant a search for moral values that could enable rulers to govern justly. The Analects Unlike many of the early Chinese philosophers, Confucius looked to the past for his inspiration. He was conservative by nature, and had a great respect for ritual and ancestor worship—both of which were maintained by the Zhou Dynasty, whose rulers received authority from the gods via the so-called Heavenly Mandate. A rigid social hierarchy existed in China, but Confucius was part of a new class of scholars who acted as advisors to the courts—in effect a class of civil servants—and they achieved their status not through inheritance, but by merit. It was Confucius’s integration of the old ideals with the emerging meritocracy that produced his unique new moral philosophy. The main source we have for the teachings of Confucius is the Analects, a collection of fragments of his writings and sayings compiled by his disciples. It is primarily a political treatise, made up of aphorisms and anecdotes that form a sort of rule book for good government—but his use of the word junzi (literally “gentleman”) to denote a superior, virtuous man, indicates that his concerns were as much social as political. Indeed, many passages of the Analects read like a book of etiquette. But to see the Analects as merely a social or political treatise is to miss its central point. At its heart lies a comprehensive ethical system. 9  background Like most educated, middle-class young men, Confucius pursued a career as an administrator, and it was in this role that he developed Despite his importance in Chinese his ideas about the organization of government. Seeing firsthand the history, little is known of Confucius’s relationships between the ruler and his ministers and subjects, and life. He is traditionally believed to have keenly aware of the fragility of the political situation of the time, he been born in 551 BCE, in Qufu in the set about formulating a framework that would enable rulers to state of Lu, China. His name was govern justly, based on his own system of moral philosophy. originally Kong Qiu (he earned the Confucius’s moral standpoint was firmly rooted in Chinese honorific title “Kong Fuzi” much convention, and had at its heart the traditional virtues of loyalty, later), and his family was both duty, and respect. These values were personified in the junzi: the respected and comfortably well off. “gentleman” or “superior man,” whose virtue would act as an Nevertheless, as a young man he example to others. Every member of society would be encouraged worked as a servant after his father to aspire to the junzi’s virtues. In Confucius’s view, human nature is died in order to support his family, and not perfect, but it is capable of being changed by the example of studied in his spare time to join the sincere virtue. Similarly, society can be transformed by the example civil service. He became an of fair and benevolent government. The notion of reciprocity— the administrator in the Zhou court, where idea that just and generous treatment will be met with a just and he developed his ideas of how a state generous response—underpins Confucius’s moral philosophy, and should be governed, but his advice was it is also a cornerstone of his political thinking. For a society to be ignored and he resigned from the good, its ruler must be the embodiment of the virtues he wishes to position. He spent the rest of his life see in his subjects; in turn, the people will be inspired through traveling throughout the Chinese loyalty and respect to emulate those virtues. In the collection of his empire, teaching his philosophy and teachings and sayings known as the Analects, Confucius advises: “If theories of government. He eventually your desire is for good, the people will be good. The moral returned to Qufu, where he died in 479 character of the ruler is the wind; the moral character of those BCE. beneath him is the grass. When the wind blows, the grass bends.” In order for this idea to work effectively, however, a new structure for society had to be established, creating a hierarchy that took account of the new meritocratic administrative class while respecting the traditional rule of the noble families. In his proposal for how this might be achieved, Confucius again relied very much on traditional values, modeling society on relationships within the family. For Confucius, the benevolence of the sovereign and the loyalty of his subject mirror the loving father and obedient son relationship (a relationship considered by the Chinese to be of the utmost importance). Confucius considers that there are five “constant relationships”: sovereign/subject, father/son, husband/wife, elder brother/ younger brother, and friend/friend. In these relationships, he emphasizes not only the rank of each person according to generation, age, and gender, but the fact that there are duties on both sides, and that the responsibility of the superior to the inferior in any relationship is just as important as that of the junior to the senior. Extending these relationships to the wider society, their reciprocal rights and responsibilities give society its cohesion, creating an atmosphere of loyalty and respect from each social stratum toward the next. 10 Confucius’ political ideas At the top of Confucius’s hierarchy was the sovereign, who would unquestionably have inherited this status, and in this respect Confucius shows the conservative nature of his political thinking. Just as the family provided a model for the relationships within society, the traditional respect shown to parents (especially fathers) extended also to ancestors, and this justified the hereditary principle. Just as a father was considered the head of the family, the state should naturally be ruled over by a paterfamilias figure— the sovereign. Nevertheless, the sovereign’s position was not unassailable in Confucius’s thinking, and an unjust or unwise ruler deserved to be opposed or even removed. However, it was in the next layer of society that Confucius was at his most innovative, advocating a class of scholars to act as ministers, advisors, and administrators to the ruler. Their position between the sovereign and his subjects was crucial, since they had a duty of loyalty both to their ruler and the people. They carried a high degree of responsibility, so it was essential that they be recruited from the most able and educated candidates, and that anybody serving in public office should be of the highest moral character—a junzi. These ministers were to be appointed by the sovereign in Confucius’s system, so much depended upon the sovereign’s own good character. Confucius said: “The administration of government lies in getting proper men. Such men are to be gotten by means of the ruler’s own character. That character is to be cultivated by his treading in the ways of duty. And the treading of those ways of duty is to be cultivated by the cherishing of benevolence.” The role of these public servants was mainly advisory, and ministers were not only expected to be well- versed in the administration and structure of Chinese society, but also to have a thorough knowledge of history, politics, and diplomacy. This was necessary to advise the ruler on matters such as alliances and wars with neighboring states. However, this new class of civil servants also served an equally important function in preventing the ruler from becoming despotic, because they showed loyalty to their superior, but also benevolence to their inferiors. Like their ruler, they too had to lead by example, inspiring both the sovereign and his subjects by their virtue. The principles of Confucius’s moral philosophy also extended into the fields of law and punishment. Previously, the legal system had been based on the codes of conduct prescribed by religion, but he advocated a more humanistic approach to replace the divinely ordained laws. As with his social structure, he proposed a system based on reciprocity: if you are treated with respect, you will act with respect. His version of the Golden Rule (“do as you would be done by”) was in the negative: “what you do not desire for yourself, do not do to others,” moving the emphasis from specific crimes to avoidance of bad behavior. Once again, this could best be achieved by example since, in his words, “When you meet someone better than yourself, turn your thoughts to becoming his equal. When you meet someone not as good as you are, look within and examine your own self.” Rather than imposing rigid laws and stern punishments, Confucius felt that the best way to deal with crime lay in instilling a sense of shame for bad behavior. Although people may avoid committing crime if guided by laws and subdued by punishment, they do not learn a real sense of right and wrong, while if they are guided by example and subdued by respect, they develop a sense of shame for any misdemeanors and learn to become truly good. 11  Confucius’ political ideas Good government The superior man He who governs by consists in the ruler governs men according means of his virtue is... being a ruler, the to their nature, with like the North Star: it minister being a what is proper to them, remains in its place minister, the father and as soon as they while all the lesser being a father, and change what is wrong, stars pay homage to it. the son being a son. he stops. Confucius’s moral and political philosophy combined ideas about the innate goodness and sociability of human nature with the rigid, The Chinese emperor presides over the civil service examinations in this Song dynasty painting. The exams were introduced during Confucius’s lifetime and were based on his ideas. formal structure of traditional Chinese society. Unsurprisingly, given his position as a court administrator, he found an important place for the new meritocratic class of scholars. However, his ideas were met with suspicion and were not adopted during his lifetime. Members of the royal and noble ruling families were unhappy with his implied dismissal of their divine right to rule, and felt threatened by the power he proposed for their ministers and advisors. The administrators might have enjoyed more control to rein in potentially despotic rulers, but they doubted the idea that the people could be governed by example, and were unwilling to give up their right to exercise power through laws and punishment. Later political and philosophical thinkers also had their criticisms of Confucianism. Mozi, a Chinese philosopher born shortly after Confucius’s death, agreed with his more modern ideas of meritocracy and leading by example, but felt that his emphasis on family relationships would lead to nepotism and cronyism. Around the same time, military thinkers such as Sun Tzu had little time for the moral philosophy underlying Confucius’s political theory, and instead took a more practical approach to matters of government, advocating an authoritarian and even ruthless system to ensure the defense of the state. Nevertheless, elements of Confucianism were gradually incorporated into Chinese society in the two centuries following his death. Championed by Mencius (372–289 BCE), they gained some popularity in the 4th century BCE. Confucianism may have been adequate to govern in peacetime, but it was felt by many not to be robust enough for the ensuing Warring States period and the struggle to form a unified Chinese empire. During this period, a pragmatic and authoritarian system of government known as Legalism supplanted Confucius’s ideas, and continued as the emperor asserted his authority over the new empire. By the 2nd century BCE, however, peace had returned to China, and Confucianism was adopted as the official philosophy of the state under the Han dynasty. It continued to dominate the structure of Chinese society from then on, particularly in the practice of recruiting the most able scholars to the administrative class. The civil service exams introduced in 605 CE were based on classic Confucian texts, and this practice continued into the 20th century and the formation of the Chinese Republic. Confucianism has not entirely disappeared under China’s communist regime, and it had a subtle influence on the structure of society right up to the Cultural Revolution. Today, elements of Confucian thinking, such as those that deal with societal relationships and the notion of filial loyalty, are still deeply ingrained in the Chinese way of life. Confucian ideas are once again being taken seriously as the country shifts from Maoist communism to a Chinese version of a mixed economy. 12 activity: post-test on chanakya & Confucius POST TEST: Create your own ‘wall fortress’. Write in the wall the things you think strengthens the government and the nation it protects. Pick three words you want to highlight and describe their importance in strengthening the connection of the people and its state. 13  Additional materials Boesche, R. (2003). The first great political realist: Kautilya and his Arthashastra. Lanham: Lexington Books. Cleary, T. F. (1998). The essential Confucius: The heart of Confucius' teachings Edison New York: Castle books. McGilvray, J. A. (2014). Chomsky: Language, mind, and politics. Cambridge: Polity Nylan, M., & Wilson, T. (2010). Lives of Confucius: Civilization's greatest sage through the ages. New York: Doubleday. Sharma, R. (2022). Political philosophy of Kautilya: The Arthashastra and after. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publishing Sim, M. (2012). Remastering morals with Aristotle and Confucius. New York : Cambridge University Press Kautilya and the Arthashastr: Lessons in Statecraft https://youtu.be/8_eN Q462nXo Arthashastra And Its Contemporary Relevance In India https://youtu.be/Yg_y OUPrB5s EASTERN PHILOSOPHY – Confucius https://youtu.be/tUhG He who conquers himself is Rh4vdb8 Who was Confucius? the mightiest warrior https://youtu.be/wFt_V GG0kJU - Confucius 14