Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory PDF

1 FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY Freud’s Personality Components Freud described the personality structures as having three components, the id, the ego and the superego. For each person, the first to emerge is the id., followed by the ego, and last to develop is the sup...

1 FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY Freud’s Personality Components Freud described the personality structures as having three components, the id, the ego and the superego. For each person, the first to emerge is the id., followed by the ego, and last to develop is the superego. The id Freud says that a child is born with the id. The id plays a vital role in one’s personality because as a baby, works so that the baby’s essential needs are met. The id operates on the pleasure principle. It focuses on immediate gratification or satisfaction of its needs. So whatever feels good now is what it will pursue with no consideration for the reality, logicality or practicality of the situation. For example, a baby is hungry. It’s id, wants food or milk, so the baby will cry. When the child needs to be changed, the id cries. When the child is uncomfortable, in pain, feels too hot or too cold, or just wants attention, the id speaks up until his or her needs are met. Nothing else matters to the id except the satisfaction of its own needs. It is not oriented towards considering reality nor the needs of others. When the id needs something, it wants it now and it wants it fast. The ego As the baby turns into a toddler and then into a preschooler, he/she relates more with the environment, the ego slowly begins to emerge. The ego operates using the reality principle. It is aware that others also have needs to be met. It is practical because it knows that being impulsive or selfish can result to negative consequences later, so it reasons and considers the best response to situations. As such, it is the deciding agent of the personality. Although it functions to help the id meet its needs, it always takes into account the reality of the situation. The superego Near the end of the preschool years, or the end of the phallic stage (3-6 yrs.), the superego develops. The superego embodies a person’s moral aspect. This develops from what the parents, teachers and other persons who exert influence impart to be good or moral. The superego is likened to conscience because it exerts influence on what one considers right or wrong. The three Components and Personality Adjustment Freud said that a well-adjusted person is one who has strong ego, who can help satisfy the needs of the id without going against the superego while maintaining the person’s sense of what is logical, practical and real. If the id exerts too much power over the ego, the person becomes too impulsive and pleasure seeking behavior takes over one’s life. On the opposite direction, one may find the superego so strong that the ego is  2 overpowered. The person becomes so harsh and judgmental to himself and others’ actions. The person’s best effort to be good may still fall short of the superego’s expectations. The ability of a learner to be well-adjusted is largely influenced by how the learner was brought up. His experiences about how his parents met his needs, the extent to which he was allowed to do the things he wanted to do, and also how he was taught about right and wrong, all figure to the type of personality and consequent adjustment that a person will make. Freud believed that the personality of an individual is formed early during the childhood years. Topographical Model The Unconscious Freud said that most of what we go through in our lives, emotions, beliefs, feelings and impulses deep within are not available to us at a conscious level. He believed that most of what influence us is our unconscious. The Oedipus and Electra Complex were both buried down into the unconscious, out of our awareness due to the extreme anxiety they caused. While these complexes are in our unconscious, they still influence our thinking, feeling and doing in dramatic ways. The Conscious Freud also said that all that we are aware of is stored in our conscious mind. Our conscious mind only comprises a very small part of who we are so that in our everyday life, we are only aware of a very small part of what makes up our personality; most of what we are is hidden and out of reach. The Subconscious The last part is the preconscious or subconscious. This is the part of us that we can reach if prompted, but is not in our active conscious. It’s right below the surface, but still “hidden” somewhat unless we search for it. Information such as our cellphone number, some childhood memories, or the name of your best childhood friend are stored in the preconscious. Because the unconscious is so huge, and because we are only aware of the very small conscious at any given time, Freud used the analogy of the iceberg to illustrate it. A big part of the iceberg is hidden beneath the water’s surface. The water may represent all that we are not aware of, have not experienced, and that have not been made part of our personality, referred to as the nonconscious.  1 ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY The Eight Psychosocial Stages of Development Stage One Psychosocial Crisis The first stage, infancy, is approximately the first year, or year and a half of life. The crisis is trust vs. mistrust. The goal is to develop trust without completely eliminating the capacity for mistrust. If the primary caregivers, like the parents, can give the baby a sense of familiarity, consistency and continuity, then the baby will develop the feeling that the world is a safe place to be, that people are reliable and loving. If the parents are unreliable and inadequate, if they reject the infant or harm it, if other interests cause both parents to turn away from the infant’s needs to satisfy own instead, then the infant will develop mistrust. He or she will be apprehensive and suspicious around people.` Maladaptation/Malignancy This doesn’t mean that the parents have to be perfect. In fact, parents who are overly protective of the child, who are there the minute the first cry comes out, will lead that child into the maladaptive tendency which Erikson calls sensory maladjustment. Overly trusting, even gullible, this person cannot believe anyone would mean them harm, and will use all the defenses at their command to find an explanation or excuse for the person who did him wrong. Worse, is the child whose balance is  2 tipped way over on the mistrust side. They will develop the malignant tendency of withdrawal, characterized by depression, paranoia, and possibly psychosis. Virtue If the proper balance is achieved, the child will develop the virtue of hope, the strong belief that even when things are not going well, they will work out well in the end. One of the signs that a child is doing well in the first stage is when the child isn’t overly upset by the need to wait a moment for the satisfaction of his or her needs. This is the same ability that, in later life, gets us through disappointments in love, our careers, and many other domains of life. Stage Two Psychosocial Crisis The second stage is early childhood from about eighteen months to three or four years old. The task is to achieve a degree of autonomy while minimizing shame and doubt. If the parents or caregiver permits the child, now a toddler, to explore and manipulate his or her environment, the child will develop a sense of autonomy or independence. The parents should not discourage the child, but neither should they push. A balance is required. People often advise new parents to be firm but tolerant at this stage. This way, the child will develop both self-control and self-esteem. On the other hand, it is rather easy for the child to develop instead a sense of shame and doubt. If the parents come down hard on any  3 attempt to explore and be independent, the child will soon give up with the belief that he/she cannot and should not act on his/her own. We should keep in mind that even something as innocent as laughing at the toddler’s efforts can lead the child to feel deeply ashamed and to doubt his or her abilities. There are other ways to lead children to shame and doubt. If you give children unrestricted freedom and no sense of limits, or if you try to help children do what they should learn to do for themselves, you will also give them the impression that they are not good for much. If you aren’t patient enough to wait for your child to tie his or her shoelaces, your child will never learn to tie them, and will assume that this is too difficult to learn. Maladaptation/Malignancy A little shame and doubt is not only inevitable, but also beneficial. Without it, you will develop the maladaptive tendency Erikson calls impulsiveness, a sort of shameless willfulness that leads you, in later childhood or even adulthood, to jump into things without proper consideration of your abilities. Worse is too much shame and doubt which leads to the malignancy Erikson calls compulsiveness. The compulsive person feels as if his entire being rides on everything he does, and so everything must be done perfectly. Following all the rules precisely keeps you from mistakes, and mistakes must be avoided at all costs.  4 Virtue If you get the proper positive balance of autonomy and shame and doubt, you will develop the virtue of willpower or determination. One of the most admirable – and frustrating – things about two- and three-year-olds is their determination. “Can do” is their motto. If we can preserve that “can do” attitude, we are much better off as adults. Stage Three Psychosocial Crisis Stage three is the early childhood stage, from three or four to five or six. The task is to learn initiative without too much guilt. Initiative means a positive response to the world’s challenges, taking on responsibilities, learning new skills, feeling purposeful. Parents can encourage initiative by encouraging children to try out their ideas. We should accept and encourage fantasy and curiosity and imagination. This is a time for play, not for formal education. The child is now capable, as never before, of imagining a future situation, one that isn’t a reality right now. Initiative is the attempt to make that non-reality a reality. But if children can imagine the future, if they can plan, then they can be responsible as well, and guilty. The capacity for moral judgment begins. Erikson is a Freudian and as such, he includes the Oedipal experience in this stage. From his perspective, the  5 Oedipal crisis involves the reluctance a child feels in relinquishing his or her closeness to the opposite sex parent. A parent has the responsibility, socially, to encourage the child to grow up, but if this process is done too harshly and too abruptly, the child learns to feel guilty about his or her feelings. Maladaptation/Malignancy Too much initiative and too little guilt means a maladaptive tendency Erikson calls ruthlessness. To be ruthless is to be heartless or unfeeling or without mercy. The ruthless person takes the initiative alright. They have their plans, whether it’s a matter of school or romance or politics or career. It’s just that they don’t care who they step on to achieve their goals. The goals are the only things that matter, and guilty feelings and mercy are only signs of weakness. The extreme form of ruthlessness is sociopathy. Ruthlessness is bad for others, but actually relatively easy on the ruthless person. Harder on the person is the malignancy of too much guilt, which Erikson calls inhibition. The inhibited person will not try things because “nothing ventured, nothing lost” and particularly, nothing to feel guilty about. They are so afraid to start and take a lead on a project. They fear that if it fails, they will be blamed. Virtue  6 A good balance leads to the psychosocial strength of purpose. A sense of purpose is something many people crave for in their lives, yet many do not realize that they themselves make their purposes through imagination and initiative. Stage Four Psychosocial Crisis Stage four is the school-age stage when the child is from about six to twelve. The task is to develop a capacity for industry while avoiding an excessive sense of inferiority. Children must tame the imagination and dedicate themselves to education and to learning the social skills their society requires of them. There is a much broader social sphere at work now. The parents and other family members are joined by teachers and peers and other members of the community at large. They all contribute. Parents must encourage, teachers must care, peers must accept. Children must learn that there is pleasure not only in conceiving a plan, but in carrying it out. They must learn the feeling of success, whether it is in school or on the playground, academic or social. A good way to tell the difference between a child in the third stage and one in the fourth stage is to look at the way they play games. Four-year-olds may love games, but they will have only a vague understanding of the rules, may change them several times during the course of the game, and be very unlikely to actually finish the game, unless it is by throwing the pieces at their  7 opponents. A seven-year-old, on the other hand, is dedicated to the rules, considers them pretty much sacred, and is more likely to get upset if the game is not allowed to come to its required conclusion. If the child is allowed too little success, because of harsh teachers or rejecting peers, for example, then he or she will develop instead a sense of inferiority or incompetence. Additional sources of inferiority, Erikson mentions, are racism, sexism, and other forms of discrimination. If a child believes that success is related to who you are rather than to how hard you try, then why try? Maladaptation/Malignancy Too much industry leads to the maladaptive tendency called narrow virtuosity. We see this in children who aren’t allowed to be children, the ones that parents or teachers push into one area of competence, without allowing the development of broader interests. These are the kids without a life: child actors, child athletes, child musicians, child prodigies of all sorts. We all admire their industry, but if we look a little closer, it’s all that stands in the way of an empty life. Much more common is the malignancy called inertia. This includes all of us who suffer from the inferiority complexes Alfred Adler talked about. If at first you don’t succeed, don’t ever try again! Many of us didn’t do well in mathematics, for example, so we’d die before we look  8 at another math class. Others were humiliated instead in the gym class, so we never try out for a sport or play a game of basketball. Others never developed social skills – the most important skills of all – and so we never go out in public. We become inert. Virtue A happier thing is to develop the right balance of industry and inferiority – that is, mostly industry with just a touch of inferiority to keep us sensibly humble. The we have the virtue called competency. Stage Five Psychosocial Crisis Stage five is adolescence, beginning with puberty and ending around 18 or 20 years old. The task during adolescence is to achieve ego identity and avoid role confusion. Ego identity means knowing who you are and how you fit into the rest of society. It requires that you take all you’ve learned about life and yourself and mold it into a unified self-image, one that your community finds meaningful. There are a number of things that make things easier. First, we should have a mainstream adult culture that is worthy of the adolescent’s respect, one with good adult role models and open lines of communication.  9 Further, society should provide clear rites of passage, certain accomplishments and rituals that help to distinguish the adults from the child. In primitive and traditional societies, an adolescent boy may be asked to leave the village for a period of time to live on his own, hunt some symbolic animal, or seek an inspirational vision. Boys and girls may be required to go through certain tests of endurance, symbolic ceremonies or educational events. In one way or another, the distinction between the powerless but irresponsible time of childhood and the powerless and irresponsible time of childhood is made clear. Without these things, we are likely to see role confusion, meaning, an uncertainty about one’s place in society and the world. When an adolescent is confronted by role confusion, Erikson says, he or she is suffering from an identity crisis. In fact, a common question adolescents ask is a straightforward question of identity – “Who am I?” One of Erikson’s suggestions for adolescence is the psychosocial moratorium. He suggests you take a little time out. If you have money, go to other places. Quit school and get a job. Quit your job and go to school. Take a break, smell the roses, get to know yourself. We tend to want to get to success as fast as possible, and yet few of us have ever taken the time to figure out what success means to us.  10 There is such a thing as too much ego identity, where a person is so involved in a particular role in a particular society or subculture that there is no room left for tolerance. Erikson calls this maladaptive tendency fanaticism. A fanatic believes that his way is the only way. Adolescents are, of course, known for their idealism, and for their tendency to see things in black-and-white. These people will gather others around them and promote their beliefs and lifestyles without regard to others’ rights to disagree. Malignancy/Maladaptation The lack of identity is perhaps more difficult still, and Erikson refers to the malignant tendency here as repudiation. To repudiate is to reject. They reject their membership in the world of adults and even more, they reject their need for an identity. Some adolescents prefer to join groups that go against the norms to form their identity: religious cults, militaristic organizations, groups founded on hatred, groups that have divorced themselves from the painful demands of mainstream society. They may become involved in destructive activities – drugs or alcohol – or they may withdraw into their own psychotic fantasies. After all, being “bad” or being “nobody” is better than knowing who you are. Virtue If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will have the virtue Erikson called fidelity. Fidelity means loyalty, the ability to live by society’s standards despite its  11 imperfections, incompleteness and inconsistencies. It is not about blind loyalty, nor about accepting the imperfections. Fidelity means that you have found a place in that community, a place that will allow you to contribute. Stage Six Psychosocial Crisis If you have made it this far, you are in the stage of young adulthood, which lasts from about 18 to 30. The ages in the adult stages are much fuzzier than in the childhood stages, and people may differ dramatically. The task is to achieve some degree of intimacy, as opposed to remaining in isolation. Intimacy is the ability to be close to others, as a lover, a friend, and as a participant in society. Because you have a clear sense of who you are, you no longer need to fear “losing” yourself, as many adolescents do. The fear of commitment some people seem to exhibit is an example of immaturity in this stage. This fear isn’t always obvious. Neither should the young adult need to prove him- or herself anymore. A teenage relationship is often a matter of trying to establish identity through couple-hood. The young adult relationship should be a matter of two independent egos wanting to create something larger than themselves. We intuitively recognize this when we frown on a relationship between a young adult and a teenager. We see the potential for  12 manipulation of the younger member of the party by the older. Maladaptation/Malignancy Erikson calls the maladaptive form promiscuity, referring particularly to the tendency to become intimate too freely, too easily, and without any depth to intimacy. This can be true of your relationships with friends and neighbors and your whole community as well as with lovers. The malignancy he calls exclusion, refers to the tendency to isolate oneself from love, friendship, and community, and to develop a certain hatefulness in compensation for one’s loneliness. Virtue If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will instead carry with you for the rest of your life the virtue of psychosocial strength Erikson calls love. Love, in the context of his theory, means being able to put aside differences and antagonisms through mutuality of devotion. It includes not only the love we find in a good marriage, but the love between friends and the love of one’s neighbor, co-worker and compatriot as well. Stage Seven Psychosocial Crisis The seventh stage is that of middle adulthood. It is hard to pin a time to it, but it would include the period during  13 which we are actively involved in raising children. For most people in our society, this would put it somewhere between the middle twenties and the late fifties. The task here is to cultivate the proper balance of generativity and stagnation. Generativity is an extension of love into the future. It is a concern for the next generation and all future generations. As such, it is considerably less selfish than the intimacy of the previous stage. Intimacy, the love between lovers or friends, is a love between equals, and it is necessarily mutual. With generativity, the individual, like a parent, does not expect to be repaid for the love he gives to his children. Although the majority of people practice generativity by having and raising children, there are many other ways as well. Erikson considers teaching, writing, invention, the arts and sciences, and social activism as generally contributing to the welfare of future generations to be generativity as well – anything that satisfies the “need to be needed” concept. Stagnation, on the other hand, is self-absorption, caring for no one. The stagnant person stops to be a productive member of society. Maladaptation/Malignancy It is perhaps hard to imagine that we should have any stagnation in our lives, but the maladaptive tendency Erikson calls overextension illustrates the problem. Some people try to be so generative that they no longer  14 allow time for themselves for rest and relaxation. The person who is overextended no longer contributes well. There are those who belong to so many clubs, or is devoted to so many causes, or tries to take so many classes or hold so many jobs that they no longer have time for any of them. More obvious is the malignant tendency of rejectivity. Too little generativity and too much stagnation and you are no longer participating in or contributing to society. And much of what we call “the meaning of life” is a matter of how we participate and what we contribute. This is the stage of the midlife crisis. Sometimes men and women take a look at their lives and ask that big, bad question : “what am I doing all this for?” Because the focus is on themselves, they ask what, rather than whom, they are doing it for. In their panic at getting older and not having experienced or accomplished what they imagined they would when they were younger, they try to recapture their youth. Men are often the more flamboyant examples. They leave their long-suffering wives, quit their jobs, buy some hip new clothes, and start hanging around singles’ bars. However, they seldom find what they are looking for, because they are looking for the wrong thing. Virtue  15 If you are successful at this stage, you will have a capacity for caring that will serve you through the rest of your life. Stage Eight Psychosocial Crisis This last stage, referred to as late adulthood or maturity, or old age, begins sometime around retirement, sometime around 60. Some older folks will protest and say it only starts when you feel old, but that’s an effect of our youth-worshipping culture, which has even old people avoiding any acknowledgment of age. In Erikson’s theory, reaching this stage is a good thing, and not reaching it suggests that earlier problems retarded one’s development. The task is to develop ego integrity with a minimal amount of despair. This stage seems like the most difficult of all. First comes a detachment from society, from a sense of usefulness, for most people in our culture. Some retire from jobs they’ve held for years, others find their duties as parents coming to a close, most find that their input is no longer requested or required. Then there is a sense of biological uselessness, as the body no longer does everything it used to. Then there are the illnesses of old age. There come fears about one was never afraid of before. Along with the illnesses come concerns of death. Friends die, Relatives die,  16 One’s spouse dies. It is, of course, certain that you too will have your turn. Faced with all these, it might seem like everyone would feel despair. In response to this despair, some older people become preoccupied with the past. After all, that’s where things were better. Some become preoccupied their failures, the bad decisions they made, and regret that that they don’t anymore have the time or energy to reverse them. We find some older people become depressed, paranoid, spiteful, hypochondriacal, or developing the patterns of senility with or without physical bases. Ego integrity means coming to terms with your life, and thereby coming to terms with the end of life. If you are able to look back and accept the course of events, the choices made, your life as you lived it, then you needn’t fear death. Although most of you are not yet at this point in life, perhaps you can still sympathize by considering your life up to now. We’ve all made mistakes, yet if you had not made these mistakes, you wouldn’t be who you are. If you had been very fortunate, or if you had played it safe, and made very few mistakes, your life would not have been as rich as it is. Maladaptation/Malignancy The maladaptive tendency in stage eight is called presumption. This is what happens when a person presumes ego integrity without actually facing the  17 difficulties of old age. The person in old age believes that he alone is right. He does not respect the ideas and views of the young. The malignant tendency is called disdain, by which Erikson means a contempt of life, one’s own or anyone’s. The person becomes very negative and appears to hate life. Virtue Someone who approaches death without fear has the strength Erikson calls wisdom. He calls it a gift to children because children will not fear life if their elders have integrity enough not to fear death. He suggests that a person must be somewhat gifted to be truly wise. Summary of the Stages Stage Psychosocial Crisis Basic Virtue Age 1. Trust vs. Mistrust Hope 0 - 1½ 2. Autonomy vs. Shame Will 1½ - 3 3. Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose 3-5 4. Industry vs. Inferiority Competency 6 - 12 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion Fidelity 12 - 18 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation Love 18 - 40  18 Stage Psychosocial Crisis Basic Virtue Age 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation Care 40 - 65 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom 65+  1 BANDURA’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY Albert Bandura - Canadian-born American psychologist best known for his Social Learning Theory and his Bobo doll experiments. His experiments aimed to investigate if social behaviors can be acquired by observation and imitation. Main Idea of Social Learning Theory Observational learning is the first step in the social learning process. People can learn something new by observing the behavior of other people and applying rational mental behavior Results of the observational learning experiment (Bobo doll experiment) kids mimicked the behavior of the adults they observed children were more likely to learn the behavior where they saw the adults were rewarded for aggressive or non-aggressive actions than those that were punished for their aggression People desire approval in life, and therefore they function in ways to receive approval. During the experiment, it was noted that the children preferred repeating actions of the models who gained approval by being rewarded. They are also more likely to continue the behavior that results in positive consequences than negative consequences. When kids imitate a model, it may be one type of behavior they reproduce. Kids may also identify with multiple models in their environment. Models could be parents, teachers, siblings, friends, peers, cartoon characters, or celebrities. They identify with these people because they have talents, abilities, or qualities the child wants to possess. When they identified with a model, they were more motivated to adopt various behaviors of that model than just mimicking one behavior. Bandura’s theory was based on three main ideas. People learned through observing role models. He identified the three types of models in his experiment: a live model physically demonstrating an action, a live model using language to display a behavior verbally, and a symbolic model showing behaviors in online media, movies, television programs, and books. Internal psychology influences the learning process. Intrinsic reinforcements satisfy the psychological needs like a sense of accomplishment, satisfaction, a form of success, or pride. Learning a behavior doesn’t automatically mean the person will execute it. Changing or applying a new behavior must be of value to the person to want to apply what they’ve learned.  2 Four Steps in Social Learning Theory 1. Attention The behavior of the model must grab the learner’s attention for them to notice the behavior and to implement observational learning. People are exposed to lots of behaviors in their immediate environment daily, and they don’t learn everything that is happening around them. 2: Retention Retention is how well the behavior is remembered. If there is no memory of the behavior observed, there is nothing to be retained for reproducing the behavior. Retention is an internal memory event that is essential for learning a new behavior. Imitation of the behavior immediately after being seen is not enough to establish a behavior. People may soon forget it as needless information, and there won’t be any memory to refer to in the future. No change will occur if they don’t remember how to imitate the action. 3: Reproduction Reproduction is the ability to execute the model’s behavior. You may want to reproduce the behaviors of a person you admire. Still, if you don’t have the ability, you won’t be able to irrespective of how often you observe the model’s behavior, how much reinforcement occurs, and how well you retain it as a memory. If you don’t have the ability, it doesn’t matter how many times you try to enact what you observed, e.g., a Kindergarten student may reproduce their teacher’s friendly attitude. Still, they don’t have the ability or skill to jump as high as an Olympian athlete 4. Motivation. Even though a person may have the ability to reproduce the behavior, they must have the desire or will to do it. People are more motivated to mimic the behavior if the behavior is rewarded with something that has more value than the effort to reproduce the behavior. If the behavior is followed by punishment, people are less likely to imitate the behavior. During the Bobo Dolls experiment, the kids were more inclined to repeat the aggressive modeling when the adults were rewarded for their behavior than when punished. Receiving a reward may motivate them to copy what they had observed, but punishment had the opposite effect.  3 Bandura’s research also showed kids were motivated to imitate the physical and verbal actions of others. They also saw that kids were more inclined to imitate people similar to them as the same gender. The retention and reproduction steps of Albert Bandura’s social learning theory resembles cognitive concepts. Paying attention to the model’s behavior is typical of a behavioral learning theory social role, the first step of observing before they imitate. Two Types of Social Learning Behaviorist Model Behaviorism is the traditional theory social learning models use to explain the way people learn. It was assumed behavior is learned when a person observes the behavior of someone, the model, and then replicate it. The theory is based on external stimulus-response to the environment but does not consider internal human behavior. Bandura’s social theory of learning overlapped, including some of the behaviorist learning theories, he also included principles from the cognitive understanding of the learning processes. Cognitive Theory Thought, understanding, and perception are cognitive functions that influence the intrinsic reinforcement of learning. The cognitive theory attempts to understand the relationship between mental activities and physical actions of behavior. Theorists believed that existing knowledge in memory might guide and help students to make new knowledge meaningful. The model includes a mediational process where a mental event occurs based on the input received. The result is a behavior seen outwardly. Responding to the stimulus requires a step of thinking occurring related to what was observed. Motivation to respond is decided internally, whether it is worthwhile to practice the new behavior or not. Social Learning Theory Applied in the Classroom Teachers may present themselves as good role models teaching kids with good behavioristic characteristics through their reactions to class incidents. If a teacher is neat and tidy, doesn’t get angry, and is always friendly, the children may follow the teacher’s lead and imitate the behavior. Working in groups may cause new behaviors. A student who tends to procrastinate may observe another hardworking student. They may conclude that the student has  4 better test results and receives approval and rewards they desire. It may motivate the child to imitate that student.  1 MODULE 3 Development of Motivation and Self-Regulation If you can dream it, you can do it Walt Disney Student motivation both typically and naturally has to do with the student’s desire to participate in the learning process. Motivation reflects the reasons or goals that underlie their involvement or non involvement in academic activities (Lumsden, 1994). Two Types of Motivation According to human development professionals, there are two types of motivation. There’s extrinsic and intrinsic. Extrinsic is determined by the individual’s outside surrounding and specific tasks. Intrinsic motivation can be found within the individual since the task can be viewed as valuable. Therefore, when applying the effect that motivation has on the learning process, it is clear that people learn better based on the perceived value of the task, subject matter, personal goals, financial incentives and wide array of different factors. A student who is intrinsically motivated undertakes an activity “for its own sake, for the enjoyment it provides, the learning it permits, or the feelings of accomplishment it evokes” (Lepper, 1988, p. 290). Conversely, an extrinsically motivated student performs and strives to succeed “in order to obtain some reward or avoid some punishment external to the activity itself,” such as grades or teacher approval (Lepper, 1988, p. 290). Motivation can be increased or decreased based on many different factors. This is one of the reasons why instructors in any educational institution can have a substantial impact on their students learning. They are a part of the student’s intrinsic motivation environment. Motivation Techniques Some instructors are better at employing numerous positive motivation techniques and strategies than others. As a result, the students can obtain a sense of satisfaction from excelling in a class or they may receive low grades because they are demotivated. For instance, if the instructor can explain to the students how a specific subject matter can relate to real life situations, the students are more likely to have a personal interest in learning what’s being presented to them. One of the best examples of real life value situations is the importance of learning math. Math  2 instructors who know how to relay the value of knowing how to count one’s personal funds, will have a better chance at gaining the students interest and keeping them engaged at all times. Self-Regulation Self-regulation is the process in which students activate, take control of and evaluate their own learning. Self-regulation is not the same as motivation. Although motivation and self-regulation share some common elements, there are some critical differences. In motivation, choice (specifically referring to autonomy and control over the situation) does not have to be central to the construct. Self-regulation, however, requires some degree of choice or intentional selection of strategies designed to help the learner achieve a goal or behavior. Self-regulated learners: Are aware of their strengths and weaknesses Utilize metacognitive strategies, for example, questioning one's learning and monitoring one's learning, to approach academic tasks Attribute their success or failure to factors within their control Self-Regulation as a Process Self-regulation is a cyclical process. Students who are motivated to reach a certain goal will engage in self-regulatory activities they feel will help them achieve that goal. The self-regulation promotes learning, which leads to a perception of greater competence, which sustains motivation toward the goal and to future goals. The specific stages of self-regulation will be covered more in-depth later in this lesson. Dimensions of Self-Regulation Researchers identified three critical dimensions, or characteristics, of self-regulation: Self-observation Self-judgment Self-reaction Self-observation refers to the deliberate monitoring of one's activities. Self-observation may take the form of recording frequency, duration or quality of a behavior. Self-observation is also critical to the regulation of performance. Self-observation may also lead to higher motivation. For example, if you realize your study habits were causing you to perform poorly on these tests, you may adjust the way you study, leading to higher test grades and more motivation to continue to improve your study habits.  3 A second critical dimension of self-regulation is self-judgment. Self-judgment refers to evaluating one's current performance levels compared to the goal level. The third critical dimension is self-reaction. Self-reaction refers to one's behavioral, cognitive and affective responses to self-judgments. Self-reactions can be motivating if one believes they are making progress toward their goal. Negative self-evaluations are not necessarily demotivating if one believes they can still make changes and progress toward their goal. Domains of Self-Regulation A general working definition of self-regulated learning is that it is an active, constructive process whereby learners set goals for their learning and then attempt to monitor, regulate, and control their cognition, motivation, and behavior, guided and constrained by their goals and the contextual features in the environment. Following this general definition, research on models of self-regulated learning have delineated four general domains that learners can try to self-regulate: (1) cognition, (2) motivation, (3) behavior, and (4) the environment. The cognitive domain includes the various cognitive strategies that learners can use to help them remember, understand, reason, and problem solve. Much of the work in this domain has focused on the learning strategies that students can use in academic contexts to comprehend text, to learn from lectures, to take notes, to solve math problems, to write papers, (e.g., testing their comprehension as they read a text). In addition, research has focused on meta-cognitive strategies that learners can use to plan, monitor, and control their own cognition. In many ways, metacognition is now seen as one part of the more general construct of self-regulated learning. In general, good self-regulating learners use a number of different strategies to control their cognition in ways that help them reach their goals. The motivation and affective domain includes the various strategies that individuals can use to try to control and regulate their own motivation and emotions. This can include strategies for boosting their self-confidence or self-efficacy such as positive self-talk ("I know I can do this task") as well as strategies to try to control their interest (e.g., making the task more interesting by making a game out of it). Other strategies can be aimed at controlling negative emotions such as anxiety that can interfere with learning. In some research, these motivational and emotional control strategies are called volitional control strategies, but they can also be seen as part of the larger construct of self-regulated learning. As with cognition, good self-regulating learners do attempt to control their motivation and emotions in order to facilitate attainment of their goals. The third domain includes actual attempts to control overt behavior, not just internal cognitions or motivational beliefs and emotions. This could involve increasing or decreasing effort on a task, as well as persisting on a task or giving up. Help-seeking behavior is another important self-regulatory behavior. Good self-regulators would  4 adjust their effort levels to the task and their goals; they know when to persist, when to ask for help, and when to stop doing the task. Finally, self-regulated learners can attempt to monitor and control the environment. Of course, they will not have as much control over the general classroom context or academic tasks as they do over their own cognition, motivation, and behavior, but there are some aspects of the context that can be controlled. For example, good self-regulated learners will try to control distractions by asking others to be quiet or by moving to another location. Good self-regulators also try to understand the task demands and the classroom norms and then try to adjust their learning to fit these demands. In other words, they are sensitive to the contextual demands and constraints that are operating in the classroom and attempt to cope with them in an adaptive manner. Importance of Self-Regulated Learning In summary, self-regulated learning is an important aspect of learning and achievement in academic contexts. Students who are self-regulating are much more likely to be successful in school, to learn more, and to achieve at higher levels. Accordingly, it is important for schools and classrooms to attempt to foster the development of expertise in self-regulated learning. Of course, there are developmental, motivational, and contextual factors that can facilitate or constrain self-regulated learning, but there are implicit and explicit ways to help foster self-regulated learning. In the twenty-first century and as the explosion of information and multiple ways of learning increase, it will become even more important that individuals know how to self-regulate their learning and that fostering self-regulated learning becomes an important goal for all educational systems.  1 MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory which puts forward that people are motivated by five basic categories of needs: physiological, safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization. In this theory, higher needs in the hierarchy begin to emerge when people feel they have sufficiently satisfied the previous need. Physiological These refer to basic physical needs like food and water, sufficient rest, clothing and shelter, overall health, and reproduction. According to Maslow, some of these needs involve our efforts to meet the body’s need for homeostasis; that is, maintaining consistent levels in different bodily systems Maslow considered physiological needs to be the most essential of our needs. If someone is lacking in more than one need, they’re likely to try to meet these physiological needs first. For example, if someone is extremely hungry, it’s hard to focus on anything else besides food. Safety Once people’s physiological requirements are met, the next need that arises is a safe environment. Our safety needs are apparent even early in childhood, as children have a need for safe and predictable environments and typically react with fear or anxiety when these are not met. Maslow pointed out that in adults living in developed nations, safety needs are more apparent in emergency situations (e.g. war and disasters), but this need can also explain why we tend to prefer the familiar or why we do things like purchase insurance and contribute to a savings account. Love and Belonging The social needs on the third level of Maslow’s hierarchy relate to human interaction and are the last of the so-called lower needs. Among these needs are friendships and family bonds—both with biological family (parents, siblings, children) and chosen family (spouses and partners). Physical and emotional intimacy ranging from sexual relationships to intimate emotional bonds are important to achieving a feeling of elevated kinship. Additionally, membership in social groups contributes to meeting this need, from belonging to a team of coworkers to forging an identity in a union, club, or group of hobbyists. Esteem  2 Our esteem needs involve the desire to feel good about ourselves. According to Maslow, esteem needs include two components. The first involves feeling self-confidence and feeling good about oneself. The second component involves feeling valued by others; that is, feeling that our achievements and contributions have been recognized by other people. When people’s esteem needs are met, they feel confident and see their contributions and achievements as valuable and important. However, when their esteem needs are not met, they may experience what psychologist Alfred Adler called “feelings of inferiority.” Self-Actualization Self-actualization refers to feeling fulfilled, or feeling that we are living up to our potential. One unique feature of self-actualization is that it looks different for everyone. For one person, self-actualization might involve helping others; for another person, it might involve achievements in an artistic or creative field. Essentially, self-actualization means feeling that we are doing what we believe we are meant to do. According to Maslow, achieving self-actualization is relatively rare, and his examples of famous self-actualized individuals include Abraham Lincoln, Albert Einstein, and Mother Teresa. Deficiency Needs vs. Growth Needs on Maslow’s Hierarchy Maslow referred to self-actualization as a “growth need,” and he separated it from the lower four levels on his hierarchy, which he called “deficiency needs.” According to his theory, if you fail to meet your deficiency needs, you’ll experience harmful or unpleasant results. Conditions ranging from illness and starvation up through loneliness and self-doubt are the byproducts of unmet deficiency needs. By contrast, self-actualization needs can make you happier, but you are not harmed when these needs go unfulfilled. Thus, self-actualization needs only become a priority when the other four foundational needs are met.  MODULE 3 Alderfer’s ERG Theory Alderfer’s ERG Theory is the extension of Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy, wherein the Maslow’s five needs are categorized into three categories: Existence Needs, Relatedness Needs, and Growth Needs Existence needs- These include need for basic material necessities. In short, it includes an individual’s physiological and physical safety needs. Relatedness needs- These include the aspiration individuals have for maintaining significant interpersonal relationships (be it with family, peers or superiors), getting public fame and recognition. Maslow’s social needs and external component of esteem needs fall under this class of need. Growth needs- These include need for self-development and personal growth and advancement. Maslow’s self-actualization needs and intrinsic component of esteem needs fall under this category of need.  1 MODULE 3 McClelland’s Theory of Needs McClelland’s theory of needs is one theory that explains the process of motivation by breaking down what needs are and how they have to be approached. David McClelland was an American Psychologist who developed his theory of needs which revolves around three important aspects, namely: Achievement, Affiliation, and Power. This theory can be considered an extension of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Per McClelland, every individual has these three types of motivational needs irrespective of their demography, culture, or wealth. These motivation types are driven by real-life experiences. 1. Need For Achievement The need for achievement as the name itself suggests is the urge to achieve something in what you do. If you are a lawyer it is the need to win cases and be recognized, if you are a painter it is the need to paint a famous painting. It is the need that drives a person to work and even struggle for the objective that he wants to achieve. People who possess high achievement needs are people who always work to excel by particularly avoiding low reward, low-risk situations and difficult to achieve high-risk situations. Such people avoid low-risk situations because of the lack of a real challenge and their understanding that such achievement is not genuine. They also avoid high-risk situations because they perceive and understand it to be more about luck and chance and not about one’s own effort. The more achievements they make the higher their performance because of higher levels of motivation. These people find innovative clever ways to achieve goals and consider their achievement a better reward than financial ones. They take calculated decision and always appreciate feedback and usually works alone. The individuals motivated by needs for achievement usually have a strong desire of setting up difficult objectives and accomplishing them. Their preference is to work in a results-oriented work environment and always appreciate any feedback on their work. Achievement-based individuals take calculated risks to reach their goals and may circumvent both high-risk and low-risk situations. They often prefer working alone.  2 2. Need For Affiliation The need for affiliation is the urge of a person to have interpersonal and social relationships with others or a particular set of people. They seek to work in groups by creating friendly and lasting relationships and have the urge to be liked by others. They tend to like collaborating with others to competing with them and usually avoid high-risk situations and uncertainty. The individuals motivated by the need for affiliation prefer being part of a group. They like spending their time socializing and maintaining relationships and possess a strong desire to be loved and accepted. These individuals stick to basics and play by the books without feeling a need to change things, primarily due to a fear of being rejected. People tend to adhere to the norms of the culture of the group and typically do not change them for fear of rejection. Collaboration is the way to work for competition remains secondary. They are not risk seekers and are more cautious in their approach. 3. Need For Power The need for power is the desire within a person to hold control and authority over another person, and influence and change their decision in accordance with his own needs or desires. The need to enhance their self-esteem and reputation drives these people and they desire their views and ideas to be accepted and implemented over the views and ideas of others. The individuals motivated by the need for power have a desire to control and influence others. Competition motivates them and they enjoy winning arguments. Status and recognition is something they aspire for and do not like being on the losing side. They are self-disciplined and expect the same from their peers and teams. They do not mind playing a zero-sum game, where, for one person to win, another must lose and collaboration is not an option. This motivational type is accompanied by needs for personal prestige, and better personal status.  3 Summary of the Types of Motivation Dominant Characteristics of This Person Motivator Achievement Has a strong need to set and accomplish challenging goals. Takes calculated risks to accomplish their goals. Likes to receive regular feedback on their progress and achievements. Often likes to work alone. Affiliation Wants to belong to the group. Wants to be liked, and will often go along with whatever the rest of the group wants to do. Favors collaboration over competition. Doesn't like high risk or uncertainty. Power Wants to control and influence others. Likes to win arguments. Enjoys competition and winning. Enjoys status and recognition.