Intro To Psychology Module 1 PDF

INTRO TO PSYCHOLOGY Frenchman Rene Descartes (1595 to 1650) (agreed with socrates and plato) Psychology and it’s History...

INTRO TO PSYCHOLOGY Frenchman Rene Descartes (1595 to 1650) (agreed with socrates and plato) Psychology and it’s History To answer the question of how the immaterial mind & physical Thinking Critically about: The Scientific Attitude body communicate, he dissected animals & concluded that the fluid in Three basic attitudes helped make modern science possible. the brain's cavities that flowed through the nerves contained animal spirits & provoked movement. ⑧ CURIOSITY: He was right that nerve paths are important & enable reflexes. ⁃ Asks “Does it work?” “When put to the test, can its predictions be confirmed?” “Can some people read minds?” “Are stress levels related to health English Science took a more down to earth form, and well-being?” centered on experiments, experience, & ⁃ Research begins with a passion to explore and understand without commonsense judgment. misleading or being misled. No matter how crazy an idea sounds, the scientists ask. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) No one has yet been able to demonstrate extra sensory mind-reading. Englishman and was a founder of modern science whose influence lingers in the experiments of today's psychological science. Many studies have found that higher stress relates to poorer health. He argued that scientific knowledge is obtained after making ⑳ SKEPTICISM observations and then utilizing inductive reasoning to interpret the ⁃ Asks “What do you mean?” and “How do you know?” observations. ⁃ Skeptical testing can reveal which claim best matches the facts. Shifting reality from fantasy requires a healthy skepticism - an attitude that is not cynical John Locke (1632-1704) (doubting everything), but also not gullible (believing everything) British political philosopher. Created one of history's greatest late Do our facial expressions and body postures affect how we actually feel? papers titled "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding". Do parental behaviors determine children’s sexual orientation - or not? Argued that the mind at birth is a tabula rasa (blank slate) which, adding to Bacon's ideas, helped form modern empiricism. Our facial expressions and body postures affect how we feel. As you will see on chapter 4, there is not a relationship between parental Empiricism: The idea that knowledge comes from experience, behaviors and a child’s sexual orientation. & that observation & experimentation enable scientific knowledge. ⑧ HUMILITY ⁃ Researchers can make mistakes, and so must be willing to be surprised and Psychological Science is Born. follow new ideas. What matters is NOT our OPINION, but the truths revealed in response to our questioning. If people or other animals don’t behave as our What were some important milestones in ideas predict, then so much the worse for our ideas. psychology's early development? The rat is always right. Psychology’s First Laboratory Modern day psychology was born in December 1879 at Germany's CRITICAL THINKING University of Leipzig, when Wilhelm Wundt wanted to create an experimental apparatus to measure the "atoms of the mind". examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, & assess conclusions. Wilhelm Wundt (1832 to 1920): Wundt established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany. scientific revolution leaders; Copernicus & Newton, were deeply religious & believed that "in order to love & honor God, it is necessary to fully appreciate the In 1883, Wundt's American Student G. Stanley Hall went on to wonders of his handiwork." establish the first formal U.S. psychology laboratory, at John Hopkins University. can lead to surprising findings, debunk popular presumptions & identify effective policies. Psychology’s First Schools of Thought How did psychology develop from early understandings of Structuralism mind and body to the beginnings of modern science? After receiving his Ph.D. in 1892, Wundt's student Edward Bradford Titchener joined Cornell faculty & introduced structuralism. PRE-SCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGY Socrates & Plato Structuralism: An early school of thought promoted by Wundt & ⁃ In ancient Greece, Socrates (469 to 399) & Plato (428 to 348) Titchener;used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind. concluded the mind is separable from the body & continues after the body dies; & that knowledge is innate.(inborn) Edward Bradford Titchener (1867 to 1927): Used introspection to search for the mind's structural elements. Aristotle ⁃ Aristotle (384 to 322) derived principles from careful Titchener aimed to classify & understand elements of the mind's observations & concluded that knowledge grows from the structure (periodic table). experience stored in our memories. Introspection: The process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one’s own psychological process. When modern science began to flourish in the 1600s, new theories of human behavior & new Proved unreliable because it required smart, verbal people & versions of ancient debates emerged. results varied from person to person & experience to experience. Moreover, we often don't know why we feel what we feel & do what we do.  Functionalism Freudian (Psychoanalytic) Psychology William James (1842 to 1920) & Mary Whiton Calkins (1863 to 1930): James was Emphasized the ways our unconscious mind & childhood a legendary teacher-writer who authored an important 1890 psychology text. He experiences affect our behavior. mentioned Calkins, who became a pioneering memory researcher & the first woman to Sigmund Freud (1856 to 1939): The controversial ideas of this be president of the American Psychological Association. famed personality theorist & therapist have influenced humanity's self- understanding. Thinking developed because it was adaptive, helping our ancestors survive & reproduce. Freud’s Ice Berg Model Conscious Mind Consciousness serves as a function, as it enables us to consider our past, Ego adjust our present, & plan our future. SuperEgo ID Functionalist An early school of thought promoted by James & influenced by Unconscious Mind Darwin; explored how mental & behavioral processes function & how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, & flourish. Humanistic Psychology Humanistic Psychology: A historically significant perspective that James authored the "Principles of Psychology (1890)*. emphasized human growth potential. Led by Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow, they found the Psychology's First Women behaviorism & Freudian psychology too limiting. Margaret Floy Washburn (1871 to 1939): The first woman to receive a psychology Ph.D., Washburn synthesized animal behavior research in "The Animal Mind (1908)". MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS She became the second female APA president in 1921. Self-Actualization Esteem Her thesis was the first foreign student Wundt published in his psychology journal. Love and Belonging Safety Needs Over the past century, psychology has shifted from mostly white, male discipline to one Physiological Needs where women now receive most Ph.Ds. How did behaviorism, Freudian psychology, and humanistic psychology further the development of psychological science? Psychological Science Mature In the early days, many psychologists shared with the English essayist C. S. Lewis's view that "there is one thing, & only one thing in the whole universe which we know more about than we could learn from external observation" (ourselves). Psychology was defined as "the science of mental life". Behaviorism This definition endured until John B. Watson & B. F. Skinner redefined psychology as "the scientific study of observable behavior". Behaviorism: The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2). It was one of the two major forces in psychology well into the 1960s. John B. Watson (1878 to 1958) & Rosalie Rayner (1898 to 1935): Working with Rayner, Watson championed psychology as the scientific study of behavior. In a controversial study on a baby, who became famous as "Little Albert", he & Rayner showed that fear could be learned. B. F. Skinner (1904 to 1990): This leading behaviorist rejected introspection & studied how consequences shape behavior A. Definition of Goals B.F. Skinner (1989) made behavioral approach a major force in psychology. Psychology is the systematic, scientific study of behaviors and mental processes. * He stressed the study of observable behaviors, the importance of environmental reinforcers (rewards and punishment), and exclusion of mental processes. FOUR GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY Albert Bandura disagree with strict behaviorism and have formulated a theory that Describe - includes mental or cognitive processes in addition to observable behaviors. Explain - explain the cause of behavior Predict - predict how organisms will behave in certain * Bandura's social cognitive approach, our behaviors are influenced not only situations. environmental events and reinforcers but also by observation, imitation, and thought Control - control an organisms behavior. processes. B. Modern Approaches PSYCHOANALYTIC APPROACH APPROACHES TO THE UNDERSTANDING OF BEHAVIOR Sigmund Freud INCLUDE: › Stresses the influence of unconscious fears, desires, and motivations on 1. Biological Approach thoughts, behaviors, and the development of personality traits and psychological 2. Cognitive Approach problems later in life. 3. Behavioral Approach 4. Psychoanalytic Approach Example: 5. Humanistic Approach Psychoanalytic Approach to Test Anxiety 6. Cross-cultural Approach Researchers found that students with high test anxiety are much more likely to procrastinate than students with low test anxiety (N.A. Milgram et al., 1992). BIOLOGICAL APPROACH Researchers also found that procrastinators tend to be raised by focuses on how our genes, hormones, and nervous system interact authoritarian parents who stress overachievement, set unrealistic goals for their with our environments to influence learning, personality, memory, children, or link achievement to giving parental love and approval (Pychyl el al., motivation, emotions, and coping techniques. 2002). Example: Normal brain uses one area (blue-fusiform gyrus) to process Id - instincts faces of people and different area (red-inferior temporal gyrus) to Ego - Reality process inanimate objects, such as chair. Superego - Morality Autistic brain uses the area that usually process inanimate HUMANISTIC APPROACH objects (red-inferior temporal gyrus) to also process human faces. Abraham Maslow: COGNITIVE APPROACH - Emphasizes that each individual has great freedom in directing his or her future, a large capacity for achieving personal growth, a considerable amount of intrinsic examines how we process, store, and use information and how this worth, and enormous potential for self-fulfillment. information influences, what we attend to, perceive, learn, remember, believe, and feel Example: Humanistic Approach to Test Anxiety Researchers Example: Cognitive approach to test anxiety. found that students who had higher expectations for academic success, such as performing well in courses, received better grades (Chemers et al.,2001). Students who experience test anxiety must have experienced excessive worrying, usually about doing poorly on exams. CROSS CULTURAL APPROACH Excessive worrying about your performance can interfere with Studies the influence of cultural and ethnic similarities and differences on your ability to read accurately, understand what you are reading, and psychological and social functioning. identify important concepts (Cassady & Johnson, 2002). Example: Cognitive Neuroscience The highest test anxiety scores were reported by students in Egypt, Jordan, and — involves taking pictures and identifying the structures and functions of Hungary. The lowest anxiety scores were reported by students in China, Italy, the living brain during performance of a wide variety of mental or Japan, and the Netherlands. Test anxiety scores of students in the United States cognitive processes, such as thinking, planning,naming, and recognizing were somewhere in the middle (Zeidner, 1998). objects. Example: C. Historical Approaches When listening to a conversation, 95% of right-handers use primarily the left side of their brains and very little of the right sides to process Gestalt Approach: Sensation vs Perceptions this verbal information. Emphasized that perception is more than the sum of its parts and studied how BEHAVIORAL APPROACH sensations are assembled into meaningful perceptual experiences. Studies how organisms learn new behaviors or modify existing THEGOATEATMEAT ones, depending on whether events in their environments reward or punish these behaviors. "The whole is greater than the sum of its' parts". Example: Max Wetheimer Behavioral Approach to Test Anxiety 1883-1943 Researchers found that the following self-management practices are related to THEGOATEATMEAT increasing studying time and achieving better grades: 1. Select a place that you use exclusively for study. 2. Reward yourself for studying. 3. Keep a record of your study time. Establish priorities among projects. 4. Specify a time for each tasks. 5. Complete one task before going on to another. 53% of freshmen who learned and used self-management practices survived into their sophomore year compared to the survival rate of only 7% of freshmen who did not learn self-management practices (Long et. Al., 1994). D. Cultural Diversity: Early Discrimination Women in Psychology Mary Calkins Margaret Washburn Calkins was a faculty member and has established a laboratory in psychology at Wellesley College in 1891, she petitioned and was allowed to take seminars at Harvard. There she completed her Ph.D. however, Harvard administration declined to grant it because she was a woman (Furumoto, 1989). It was not until Margaret Washburn was awarded a Ph.D. in Psycholoav in 1008. Minorities in Psychology In psychology's early days, only a few northern White universities accept Black students, while all southern White universities denied admission to Black students. The first African American woman to receive Ph.D. in psychology in 1934 was Ruth Howard, who graduated from the University of Minnesota in 1934. She had a successful career as a clinical psychologist and school consultant. Between 1920 and 1966, only 8 Ph.D.s in psychology were awarded to Black students, compare to 3,767 doctorates to Whites (R.V. Guthrie, 1976).