Modern Egypt: A Historical Overview PDF

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Qwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvb Doaa Kandil nmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzx Helwan University cvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjk Faculty of Tourism & Hotels lzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfg hjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopas Modern Egypt: dfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuio A Historical Overview pasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwerty Professor Dr. Doaa Kandil uiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwe rtyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmq wertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbn mqwertyupasdfghjklzxcvb nmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzx cvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjk lzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfg  ‫‪Doaa Kandil‬‬ ‫الناشر‪:‬جهاز نشر و توزيع‬ ‫الكتاب الجامعى‪-‬‬ ‫جامعة حموان‬ ‫حقوق التأليف محفوظة‬ ‫لممؤلف‬ ‫‪2023‬‬  Doaa Kandil Knowledge is Power  Doaa Kandil “History is who we are and why we are the way we are.”  Doaa Kandil Transition to Modern Ages  Doaa Kandil Islamic World during the Medieval Ages: Many scholars agree that the ninth and tenth centuries were considered as the golden age of Islamic civilization. Muslim scholars made big contributions to all branches of human knowledge thus creating unprecedented intellectual boom. It should be noted that Abbasid caliphs highly regarded scholars and generously rewarded them. That's how they fostered individual creativity and provided scholars with a favorable medium to work within and conduct their researches. No wonder, their capital Baghdad turned to be unrivalled flourishing learning center. For example, the "House of Wisdom" which Al Mamun built there was a big research center that comprised rich libraries. There, the works of other civilizations; Greek, Persian and Indian were translated into Arabic. After amassing such former knowledge, Muslim scholars challenged it.  Doaa Kandil They tried to verify the theories which those ancient works contained. This ended up that they developed the scientific approach. They didn't suffice themselves with the knowledge of the predecessors which they came to prove but thoroughly explained, analyzed and added commentaries to them. Thus they made big leaps forward in many fields. For instance, eminent Muslim scholars discovered basic chemical processes like distillation, crystallization and others. The medical texts of Muslim physicians like those of Avicenna and Al Razi had much inspired their European counterparts for centuries to come. It seems safe to say that Muslim physicians revolutionized medical thought and were primarily concerned with improving public health. They also developed hospitals and provided patients there with medical services of remarkably high quality. Significantly, mental illness was treated inside such  Doaa Kandil institutions likewise. Music was heavily used in this regard to release tension and bring serenity and tranquility to those patients. In the same context, the theories of Al Hassan Ibn Al Haytham formed the basis for the study of light. They much influenced later European scholars who considered Al Hassan as the "Father of Optics". It is not surprising that the Arabic language had gradually emerged as the language of learning at that time. To their credit, Muslim scholars also made a remarkable progress in astronomy that was closely associated with the performance of the religious rituals of Islam. There was a dire need to determine the direction of the "Qibla" and prayers times in order to fully observe their religious commitments. Therefore, they developed astrolabes which were elaborate inclinometers used to determine local time, latitude on land as well as to locate  Doaa Kandil and predict positions of the sun, moon, planets and stars. For the same purpose, they developed sundials to find times of prayers and used to place them inside mosques. Introducing paper to the Muslim world was another turning point in history of mankind. Being cheap, paper had much helped in preserving human knowledge as well as disseminating it far and wide. Indeed the Arabs had borrowed it from central Asia, yet they were the ones who mastered its manufacture and produced it in large quantities to meet the needs of learning. It is not surprising that that it became one of the most lucrative businesses of the day. From the Muslim world, this invention had its way to Europe through Andalusia. This was another big favor which the Muslim world had rendered to Europe during these ages. The treaties of Muslim philosophers like that of Al-Farabi had largely  Doaa Kandil influenced European thinkers and left a lasting impact on them. One can safely say that the scientific achievements and innovations of eminent Muslim scholars played a key role in the emergence of modern Western civilization. To be more precise, they formed the foundation on which the modern Western civilization would be later erected in the age of Renaissance. Nevertheless, this golden age of Islamic civilization was to come to an end with the advent of the Mongols. They overthrew the Abbasside caliphate and entered the city of Baghdad in 1258. They committed a lot of atrocities there including the destruction of public libraries with its huge collections of books that were thrown into the Tigris. This was by all means a big loss not only for Islamic civilization but for entire humanity. The fall of Andalusia two centuries later added fuel. That's how  Doaa Kandil Europeans came to inherit the scientific and technological initiative of the Muslim world paving the way for the rise of scientific revolution. Europe during Medieval Ages: On the other hand, Europe lived concomitantly in the so- called "Dark Ages". It plunged into chaos, ignorance, poverty and wretchedness. Plague or the Black Death struck Europe with unceasing continuity and wiped out entire cities. It killed more than twenty five percent of the European population at that time. It was transmitted through rodents that reproduced in large number due to the deteriorating living and sanitary conditions. The feudal system that appeared in Europe at that time was a balance of rights and duties. Those who held the land were committed to perform military service to lords who formed the ruling aristocracy. The relationship between those who held the land and the serfs who  Doaa Kandil worked on it was defined in the same manner. Such a system had created a huge gap between social classes in Europe during those ages. Furthermore, instability and political disorder disturbed public order and added to people's woes. England and France, for example were engaged in a bitter conflict known as the "Hundred Years' War". Certainly, warfare embittered people's life in both countries. The situation in Italy was no better. Territorial rivalry among principalities disturbed Germany's internal peace likewise. In short, the European continent lived at hot tinned surface during such ages. Transition to Modern Ages Most historians agree that the coming of the 15th century marked the beginning of modern ages due to the major  Doaa Kandil transformation which it had witnessed. Among these major transformations were: -The fall of Constantinople (1453) -The end of Arab rule in Spain (1492) -The discovery of the New World (1492) -The discovery of Cape of Good Hope (1488 then 1497) The fall of Constantinople: Constantinople was a millennium-old city that had always posed a grave threat to Muslim World. Muslim rulers since the time of Muawwiya of the Ummaid dynasty tried to enter this city but failed because of its massive walls. They always had the dream of entering it in accordance with the prophesy of Prophet Muhammad prayers be upon him.  Doaa Kandil The Ottoman Sultan Muhammad II was fully obsessed with this idea of capturing Constantinople since his early childhood. Therefore, he worked hard to realize this end. He built a massive fortress on the European side of the Bosphorus to be a strait-blocker in order to tighten his grip over the city. It was called "Rumali Hisar" and it took him three months only to finish its construction. It was the first strategic move towards capturing the city. He also tried to control the gulf of the Golden Horn. To avoid the massive iron chain at the entrance of the Golden Horn that impeded navigation, Muhammad II conceived unprecedented genius plan. He rolled his ships after folding its mists on a road built of wooden logs over the mountains surrounding the gulf. The logs were coated with grease to facilitate the sliding of the ships. Actually, they were dragged by robust men  Doaa Kandil together with oxen overnight. By this way, he transferred 70 ships to the gulf of the Golden Horn against Byzantine will. It was such unpleasant surprise for the people of Constantinople who waked up the following day to find the Ottoman ships inside the gulf. He laid a siege to the city that lasted for 54 days. At last, he captured the city. He triumphantly entered it on 29th of May 1453. He changed its name to" Islam Bul" which means the abode of Islam. As time lapsed, it was slightly altered to become "Istanbul". He made it a new capital for the Ottoman Empire. It remained the capital of the Ottoman Empire till its downfall in the Twentieth century. To his credit, Muhammad II who now acquired the title of "the conqueror" allowed freedom of worship inside the city in accordance with the teachings of Islam that openly state that there is no compulsion in faith. He also  Doaa Kandil allowed non-Muslims to practice freely their religious rituals. The end of Arab rule in Spain: The Arabs entered Spain in 711 AD in the reign of the Al Waleed Ibn Abd Al Malek of the Ummayid dynasty. The army was led by Tareq Ibn Zeyad under the command of Musa Ibn Nosseir. The Arab rule would last there for eight centuries. The city of Cordoba became the capital of an independent Arab Muslim Emirate and later Caliphate in Andalusia since 766 AD. Córdoba was one of the most advanced cities in the world at that time. It was incomparable intellectual center that's why it became the destination of European scholars. At the same time, it was also a world leading center of medicine and philosophical debate. Its substantial wealth was reflected  Doaa Kandil in its splendor and its lavish buildings. At the height of the Muslim caliphate there, it had a population of 500, 000 inhabitants. It had lofty palaces, mosques, public baths, and gardens containing diversity of flowers, plants and fountains. Furthermore, it had the largest library in the world during the 10th and 11th centuries that comprised more than 400,000 volumes. At the same time, it was also a world leading center of medicine and philosophical debate. No wonder, all visitors of the city were much impressed of its dazzling beauty. A Saxon nun named Hroswitha who visited the city during the 10th century called it the ornament of the world. Non-Muslims who lived there were given the status of ahl al-dhimma (the people under protection). They were allowed to practice their religious rituals and to live in accordance with the laws of their community. In other  Doaa Kandil words, tolerance was a distinctive feature of the Andalusian society. Unfortunately, the civil war that ensued from 1009 and 1013 had a detrimental effect on the Cordoba Caliphate. It dramatically collapsed in 1031leading to the fragmentation of Muslim state there. At this point, Andalusia was divided into a number of petty, independent and rather weak states known as "Tawaef". Unable to defend themselves or to check the recurrent raids of the Christian states located to the north that gravely escalated every day, Kings of those Tawaef sought the help of AlMoravids dynasty in Morocco. In response, Yusuf Ibn Tashfin crossed the straits and led his army to a big victory in the battle of Al Zallaqa in 1086 and tried to re-unite Muslim states there. The Al Mohads dynasty succeeded the Al Moravids in the 12 th century. However, they lost much of their power  Doaa Kandil because of the coalition formed by Christian states against them. Things were to worsen with the re- establishment of Tawaef causing disintegration of Muslim power in Andalusia and the fall of their big cities one after another. The Emirate of Granada was the last Muslim stronghold in Spain. However, the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile and the unification of their kingdoms signaled its rapid downfall. They attacked Granada which they besieged for long. In January 1492, Abu Abd Allah Muhammad XII was forced to surrender the city with its fortress palace known as Al Hambra. While riding his horse and departing from the city, he stopped to look at Al Hambra for one last time. He wanted to bid it a farewell but he couldn't help bursting into tears. When his mother saw his tears, she  Doaa Kandil approached him and said her famous words: "Thou dost weep like a woman for what thou could not defend as a man." Muslim inhabitants of Spain were subject to religious persecution. They were obliged to abandon their Arabic names, language and even their faith by the Spanish inquisition. Finally, the Moriscos were expelled from Spain in the years between 1609 and 1614. The Discovery of the New World: Christopher Columbus was an ambitious Genoese navigator who was seeking both fame and wealth. He was bent on discovering a new maritime trade route to India and the Far East other than the traditional trade route controlled by Muslim rulers. He believed that if he crossed the Atlantic Ocean, he would reach India. This would enable the Europeans to control the spices  Doaa Kandil lucrative trade and deal a lethal blow to the economy of the Muslim world. He tried to find sponsors among European rulers who could finance his trip but in vain. They all believed that it was a risk and a waste of money. At last, he convinced Isabella Queen of Castile to finance his trip. It seems that he exploited her religious prejudice to realize his aim. He set out for this trip in 1492. He had three ships the first ship was called Saint Maria and it was the flagship that hoisted the Spanish flag. Ironically, he instead of finding another route to India, he discovered the New World or the Western hemisphere. Accordingly, the Spanish soon established colonies in the new land and made use of its rich resources.  Doaa Kandil The Discovery of the Cape of Good Hope: Like the Spanish, the Portuguese had endeavored to find new trade routes to India and the Far East. They conducted a number of trips for this purpose. Their efforts were culminated with the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope. It was first discovered by Dias in 1488 and he called it Cape of the Storms but King John II later changed its name to become Cape of Good Hope as some kind of good omen. This route goes around the African continent and was relatively longer than the traditional trade route. Vasco Di Gamma was the one who completed this discovery in 1497-1498 which marked a shift in international trade. This discovery undermined the wealth of the Mamluks that would lead eventually the downfall of their Sultanate. As a matter of fact, the Mamluks built up their fortunes from the riches of the oriental trade. They dominated the international  Doaa Kandil trade between Southeast Asia and Europe making use of Egypt’s genius setting as a passage way between the East and the West. They also controlled grain speculation between the countryside and the big cities as well as the exchange of merchandise. No wonder, the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope and the transition of the international trade route dealt them a severe stroke that vigorously shacked their position and lost them the tariffs imposed on this transit trade which formed the prime source of their income at that time. What added fuel to fire that the Mamluks failed deal with the new situation as they continued to live in the same lavishness which they were used to. The Muslim World at the closing decades of the 15th century: By the end of the 15th century, there were three main powers contending for supremacy in the Muslim world:  Doaa Kandil - The Mamluks (their sphere of interest was Egypt, Syria and Hijaz) - The Ottomans (their sphere of interest was Anatolia and Asia Minor) The Safavids (their sphere of interest was Persia and -Iraq) The Mamluks They were originally white slaves who belonged to different races brought from Caucasus, Circassia, and the Russian Steppes. They were mainly military slaves who were first brought to the Muslim world during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Al Mutawakkel. The Ayyubid Sultan Al Saleh Najm el Din Ayyub brought huge number of them to form his personal bodyguard. He heavily relied on them because of their efficiency and superb fighting attributes. No wonder, it was his  Doaa Kandil Mamluks who would later defend the entire Muslim world and maintain themselves in Egypt as an oligarchy forming a class per se. In 1249 King Louis IX of France led a crusade Egypt. He managed to capture Damietta and then proceeded southwards. As the Crusaders were advancing in Egypt, Al Salih Najm El Din Ayyub died at this critical time. His wife who was originally a salve concealed the news of his death and his Bahri mamluks fiercely fought the crusaders and routed them at the battle of "Mansura". After the assassination of Turanshah the successor of Al Saleh, the road became wide open for the Mamluks to install their supremacy. They founded the Mamluk Sultanate that lasted from 1250-1517 AD.  Doaa Kandil To their credit, they also stopped the advent of the Mongols after defeating them at the famous battle of "Ain Jalut" in 1260 AD The word "Mamluk" itself literally means an owned one. They were brought from slaves markets to Egypt at an early age. Then, they would be converted to Islam and given new names. They were raised in special barracks where they were subject to strict discipline. There, they received an advanced military training that lasted for a number of years. On its completion, mamluks were emancipated in a big ceremony where they would receive their certificate of freedom. After gaining their freedom, they would start their career. They would join the military corps and rise in ranks. Mamluks enjoyed certain an opulent lifestyle and were given certain privileges like carrying arms and riding horses.  Doaa Kandil It is noteworthy to say that Mamluks though originally slaves; they did not suffer inferiority like their peers who lived elsewhere in the world at that time. Actually, slavery in the whole Muslim world was not that vicious as slavery in Europe and the New World. As a matter of fact, the doctrines of Islam which advocated humane treatment to slaves and urged their manumission had been a great help to them. The mamluks were organized into households under the leadership of its founder known as "Sayyid" which means master or "Ustaz" which means teacher. Mamluk households rested primarily on two fundamental pillars: patron-client relationship that guaranteed the loyalty of the Mamluks to their master known as "Walaa" as well as the loyalty to their comrades in servitude known as "Khushdashiya". As a  Doaa Kandil result, they were bound together with impressive solidarity that was mainly based on their pride as a unique and rather exclusive military elite as well as common interests. Accordingly, Mamluks who belonged to the same household developed a code of honor to which they all strictly abided themselves. Nevertheless, the Mamluk institution had always suffered from factionalism because of the intensified rivalry among its households. One can safely say that the law that governed their institution was "survival of the fittest" The Ottomans: They were attributed to Osman I the founder of their dynasty. They formed a vast Empire that comprised more than 30 states in three continents (southwestern Asia, southeastern Europe, and North Africa). No wonder, it became a multi-cultural state. In  Doaa Kandil fact, the Ottoman Empire was one of the greatest Empires ever known in history. Its life-span was pretty long as it lasted for six centuries from 1299-1923 AD. At the height of its glory during the sixteenth century, it turned to be a super world power. It was mainly inspired and maintained by Islam and Islamic institutions. To their credit, the Ottomans never compelled their subjects who belonged to different cultures and ethnic origins to adopt a certain religion or language. The rule that governed their wide state was: "Live and let others live". Non –Muslims were organized into "Millet System" and enjoyed a high degree of self-autonomy. The Ottomans were originally Turcomani nomadic tribes whose ancestral land was located in Central Asia. They were forced to move westwards and leave their homeland because of the attacks of the Mongols. They entered Anatolia in the 13th century. In  Doaa Kandil the course of their emigration, they passed by two fighting armies. Out of gallantry, they decided to fight next to the defeated army of the Seljuks. Their participation in the battle in favor of the Seljuks, brought them a big victory. No wonder, Sultan Alaa Al Din of the Seljuki Sultanate of Rum felt indebted to them and decided to reward them. He granted them a large plain to live in. It was called Sogud and it lied on the borders of the aged Byzantine Empire. After the death of the Seljuki Sultan, Osman son of Ertughrl founded a small principality in this place. It expanded gradually at the expense of its Byzantine neighbor. They continued their expansion in Europe and captured the city of Constantinople. This led to the collapse of the Byzantine Empire and the rise of Ottoman power. It should be noted that the Ottomans had adopted the modern military technology of that age which was  Doaa Kandil artillery and firearms which contributed to the aggrandizement of their power. The Janissaries troops that were infantry troops formed the backbone of the Ottoman military power. Its members were recruited through the "Devshirme system" which the Ottomans had successfully implemented. That's how the Ottoman Empire had protected the Muslim World from the Portuguese threat as well as from colonial powers till the end of the 18th century The Safavids: The Safavids was a ruling dynasty in Iran that ruled from 1501 to 1736 AD. Its name was derived from the name of Sheikh Safy Al Din who was the founder of a Sufi order in the city of Ardabil in Azrabijan. They adopted Shiism (the Twelver school) and were known for their religious zeal. They tried hard to spread the Shiite sect both among the Turks of Azrabijan and  Doaa Kandil Anatolia. They were relatively successful and those who came to adopt Shiism were called "Kizlilbash". The word Kizlilbash meant the red heads referring to the distinctive headgear which they used to wear. They made Ardabil their base from which they moved to establish their control over Greater Iran. Shah Ismail was the real founder of this dynasty. He proclaimed himself Shah and captured the city of Tabriz which he made his capital. Although Anatolia was under Ottoman control, Shah Ismail made big efforts to spread the Shii Sect there among its inhabitants. This must have provoked the wrath of the Ottomans who were ardent Sunni Muslims. This led ultimately to outbreak of war between them.  Doaa Kandil Egypt under the Ottoman Rule  Doaa Kandil Egypt under Ottoman rule Deterioration of Mamluk-Ottoman relations The relationship between the Mamluks and the Ottomans had passed through a number of stages. Within some of these stages, they were in friendly terms while, in some others mutual hostility occurred between them. Some examples of their cordial relationships can be traced in the great ceremony which Sultan Inal held to celebrate the fall of Constantinople and its annexation to the Ottoman Empire on the hands of Mohamed II (the conqueror) in 1453 thus realized that old dream of all Muslims everywhere. Also, when the Mamluks failed to withstand the Portuguese, who wished to manipulate the trade in the Indian Ocean and the Red sea and to fulfill their wicked dreams of violating the holy Muslim places  Doaa Kandil in Hijaz, they turned to the Ottomans and asked for their help. In fact, the Ottomans responded at once and sent to the Mamluks timber, gunpowder, iron and tar needed for building warships. However, there were other examples for hostile relationships. The Ottomans waged a war against the Mamluks led by Sultan Qaitbay in 1485.However, the ascension of Sultan Selim I to the throne marked a turning point in the Mamluk-Ottoman relations. Selim I (ruled from 1512-1520): He was an awe-struck figure that aroused a lot of debate. He was known with his striking cruelty and warlike nature. This appears in his brutal attitude towards his father whom he compelled to abdicate this throne and replaced him. His fierce bloody struggle against his brother and nephews to consolidate his rule confirms the  Doaa Kandil same fact. It is not surprising that he acquired the surname “Yavus” which means the grim. Selim's acts against the Mamluks intensified tension between them and led eventually to outbreak of war. For instance, he closed the slaves markets which directly threatened the existence of the Mamluk Sultanate that depended mainly on annual imports of slaves. The acts of the Mamluk Sultan Al Ghury had also added to such hostility. In fact, the asylum which Al Ghury gave to a number of fleeing Ottoman princes had extremely outraged Selim. The news of the secret alliance between Al Ghury and Shah Ismail aggravated the situation. It was probably the last nail which Al Ghury dug into his coffin. Therefore, Selim considered launching war against the Mamluks after defeating the Safavids at the battle of  Doaa Kandil Chaldiran in 1514. It should be noted here that some historians regarded Selim a pan-Islamist who was pretty concerned with restoring the unity of the Muslim world. Accordingly, he decided to move eastwards and incorporate the Mamluk Sultanate. Without loss of time, Selim attacked the Turcoman principality of Dulgadir in 1515, which was counted among the Mamluk holdings, and slaughtered their deputy named Alaa Al Dawla. Then, he incorporated Diyar Bakr, Kurdistan and the city of Mosul. Selim’s occupation of these regions had alarmed the Mamluks that is why the Mamluk Sultan Al-Ghury moved his troops to Aleppo against the advice of "Sepay" his vassal there. He marched to Aleppo in a grand procession that included the Abbasside Caliph and the judges of the four Islamic schools of jurisprudence. He also carried with him his invaluable treasures where he  Doaa Kandil placed in the citadel of Aleppo. Apparently, he wished to shatter the morals of the Ottomans by this show of power. Fall of Mamluk Sultanate: A one-sided battle took place at Marj Dabek to the north of Aleppo in 1516. Thanks to their artillery as well as the treachery of Khair Bey and Jan Bardy Al-Ghazali, the Ottomans won the upper hand while Al-Ghury died in the battlefield. Selim soon took Aleppo, entered Damascus and had his name mentioned in the Friday public prayers. Tuman Bay who was the chief Dawadar or High Chamberlain was appointed Sultan at this critical moment against his will. He was known for his piety and good reputation and enjoyed high popularity. At first, he rejected this appointment but accepted it at last to save the day.  Doaa Kandil Having established himself in Syria, Selim I decided to proceed to Egypt. It is worth mentioning that before moving to Egypt, he sent his envoys to Tuman Bay the successor of Al Ghury with a convenient offer: to acknowledge Selim’s suzerainty over Egypt and to become his vassal there in return. However, Tuman Bay rejected this offer after consulting the Mamluks who were determined to fight back. Although, he faced a lot of financial hardships, he refused to overburden the populace by imposing new taxes. He tried hard to make good preparations for war in order to stop the advent of the Ottomans. The two armies met again at Al-Raydaniah to the East of Cairo in 1517 where the Ottoman army outnumbered the Mamluk one. The superiority of Ottoman artillery had worked again in their favor. In spite of the remarkable bravery of the Mamluks, they were quickly defeated  Doaa Kandil while Tuman Bay made a narrow escape. He took refuge at an Arab chief in Buheira called Ibn Maraey who betrayed him and surrendered him to the Ottomans. Shortly after, he was hanged over Zewila Gate and his corpse remained there for three days like criminals. That is how the Mamluk Sultanate collapsed at the hands of the Ottomans in 1517. Egypt was now annexed to the vast Ottoman Empire and became one of its multiple states. Why the Mamluks refused to use firearms on a large scale? There were two main causes that stood beyond Mamluks' unwillingness to use firearms: A psychological cause: because they regarded horsemanship as the sign of their glory that  Doaa Kandil distinguished them. It was their pride which they couldn't give away easily. A technical cause: they couldn't use them with high efficiency while riding their horses. In other words, they insisted to remain cavalry troops rather than shifting to infantry ones. Stance of native Egyptians from the Ottoman rule: It seems that the coming of the Ottomans to Egypt had first caused a shock for the natives. They felt horrified after the execution of Tuman Bay whom they mourned with much bitterness. That is why the great historian Ibn Iyas resembled the advent of the Ottomans with the conquest of of Holagu in the 13th century. After the coming of the Ottomans, Egypt was relegated to a mere Ottoman province thus lost its ex- envied position as the seat and center of a big Sultanate.  Doaa Kandil It is not surprising that the Ottomans did not pay much attention to undertake construction activities there. As a matter of fact, the Ottomans had devoted much effort to improve the conditions of their capital Istanbul that came to flourish at the expense of Cairo. They transferred to it a lot of invaluable books and scriptures, which they took from Cairo’s medrassas to enrich the learning institutions there. Furthermore, they carried to Istanbul a lot of Egyptian treasures, weapons, horses, gold and silver coins and artworks. It was said that these treasures were abundant enough to be carried on the back of thousand camels. They also took 1800 artisans and craftsmen (carpenters, smiths and others) of the most skillful and expertise ones which led to the destruction of 50 crafts in Egypt.  Doaa Kandil The Ottoman governmental system in Egypt: After establishing his supremacy in Egypt, Selim I put the principal outlines of the Ottoman governmental structure there. These outlines became the foundation of the Ottoman rule in Egypt and lasted for long. Indeed, they had undergone some modifications after issuing " Qanun name " of Egypt in 1524 yet, they remained the basis of the administrative system. At the head of this governmental system, he appointed a governor. However, he decided to confine the authority of his governors and to shorten their tenure of office in order to guarantee their loyalty to the Porte. As a matter of fact, he realized that Egypt’s unique position and assets might tempt any governor to seek for independence.  Doaa Kandil Therefore, he distributed authority among three competing groups. Such rivalry would allow none of these groups to prevail over the other or to challenge the central government These competing groups were: 1-The Ottoman governor He was also known as the Pasha and headed the Ottoman administrative system. In fact, Ottoman governors were sent from Istanbul to Egypt as representatives of the Sublime Porte. They presided over the ruling aristocracy in Egypt. The prime responsibility of Ottoman governors in Egypt was to convey the imperial decrees and enforce them as well as the supervision of the administrative, political and military affairs of the province. Also among their tasks was to maintain security, to dispense  Doaa Kandil justice and to impose discipline in their province. Above all they had to send an annual tribute to the Imperial treasury in Istanbul both in cash and kind. Moreover they had to send to Mecca every year the embroidered curtains of the Kaaba as well as to sustain its inhabitants with rations needed for their subsistence. 2- The garrison and the military corps: Selim left a garrison in Egypt to defend the country and keep its internal order. These troops formed the backbone of the Ottoman rule In Egypt. They were organized into seven military regiments which were: Janissaries, Azabs, Chavauchan, Gonollyan (volunteers), Tufinkian (riflemen), Cerkasi (Circassians) and Mutaferriqa. As a matter of fact, only four of these seven regiments did exist from the beginning which were:  Doaa Kandil (Janissaries, Azabs, Gonallyan and Tufenkian) while the rest were formed later on. It is noteworthy to say that the first two regiments (Janissaries and Azabs) were infantry corps while the others were cavalry ones 3-The Mamluks: Mamluks who declared their allegiance to the Ottomans after the collapse of their regime, formed the third group. He spared them, and willingly received them into his service. One might get surprised of Selim’s sparing the Mamluks. In order to understand this attitude, one must take into account that Selim’s policy towards the Mamluks had passed through two stages: Within the first stage, he was fully determined to destroy them. This was during that period which followed his victory at Al Raydaniah where a large  Doaa Kandil number of the Mamluks and their subordinates lost their heads (about 4800). He exiled a huge number of them to Istanbul. The Ottomans even made it clear that if any one of the mass subjects gave shelter to a Mamluk, he would be a subject for a harsh penalty. The Mamluks themselves tried to camouflage the Ottomans by wearing peasants clothing which they once despised before. However, Selim before leaving to Istanbul appointed Khair bey as governor of Egypt as a reward for his sincere efforts to install the Ottoman rule. It seems that Selim’s wisdom had surpassed his prejudice against the Mamluks. Now, he achieved all his ends; he overthrew the Mamluk sultanate and annexed its holdings to his vast empire. Thus he would gain nothing if he eliminated the rest of the Mamluks whom he had totally subjugated. On the contrary, he could  Doaa Kandil make use of their vigor and their loyalty to Islam if he recruited them in his army. Besides, he needed to enrich his newly-born governmental system by utilizing those Mamluks who had a long experience in the administration of the country so as to guarantee that this system would operate in high efficiency and success. In short, he spared them for his own interest and for pragmatic reasons as he wished to benefit from their remarkable skills whether military or administrative ones. Therefore, Khair bey announced that the Mamluks were pardoned. So, they came out of their hidings. Nevertheless, the survival of the Mamluk aristocracy and the resume of their old costume of importing new slaves from Circassia to replenish their households predicted their ascendancy later on.  Doaa Kandil Certainly, setting no restriction on that practice of importing new slaves was the fatal mistake of the Ottomans because they have provided them with their only mean of self-perpetuation. Thus, they soon restored their power, overruled the Ottomans and became the virtual masters of the country It is quite obvious that the Mamluks were trying to fool the Ottomans and showed them false loyalty. They were in fact waiting for a chance to re-establish themselves and avenge from the Ottomans. It seems that they never forgave the Ottomans for undermining their regime. They had the first chance after the death of Khair bey who remained loyal to the Ottomans. They led a rebellion but Sulyman the Lawgiver soon suppressed. He sent his grand vizier to Egypt to examine its conditions. The visit was culminated with the  Doaa Kandil promulgation of "Qanun Name Misr". This Qanun was a code of laws designed especially to organize the administrative and military system of the country. It preserved that equilibrium between state's interests and subjects' interests so as to maintain prosperity for everyone. Unfortunately, most of it fell in disuse as time lapsed. It should be noted that those Mamluks beys continued to exercise authority, which some regarded as a baronial authority and continued to have slaves despite the change of their status. Ottoman concept of rule: The Ottoman concept of rule was a limited one. The Ottomans believed that the main tasks of the state were: 1- To maintain Sharia (sacred law of Islam) 2- To defend its boundaries against foreign attacks  Doaa Kandil 3- To preserve security and internal order. 4- To dispense justice and settle disputes that might occur among its subjects 5- To collect the due taxes. This concept didn't pay much attention to public welfare. Therefore, they neglected many vital issues like, education, public health, public facilities and left such matters to civil society. They didn't devise strategies to enhance such things which led to the deterioration of living conditions and negatively affected their subjects. The social structure of the Egyptian society: At the top of the social ladder, there was ruling elite called “Al Khassa”. Such ruling elite consisted of both Ottomans and Mamluks. In other words, all members of this privileged class who monopolized high military and administrative posts belonged to a  Doaa Kandil foreign race, as they were either Turkish or Circassian. They enjoyed a grand lifestyle and all pleasures. Sadly, native Egyptians were not allowed to this class. The ruling elite were followed by: The Notables or "Ayan": Members of this class were respectable persons who enjoyed high status like: - Wealthy merchants who attained a worthwhile status in these medieval ages. This status was chiefly placed on their commercial activities that influenced the whole state. - Men of learning or Ulama: The term Ulama is an inclusive term that refers to judges, jurischolars, preachers and the like who move Those Ulama were within the orbit of Islam.  Doaa Kandil magnanimous figures whose prestige emanated from their religious learning that did credit to them. Their main aspect in life was to implement Sharia (the sacred law of Islam) so as to govern people’s life and maintain a religious discipline They also defended the general populace, interceded for them before the rulers and spoke on their behalf. In sum, they acted as some kind of mediators between the rulers and the subjects and were totally venerated from both sides. It seems safe to say that they acquired a certain degree of autonomy with respect to their establishments. Generally speaking, members of the ruling elite were in good terms with the Ulama and even procured  Doaa Kandil close ties with them. Such friendly terms were probably the outcome of two reasons. Firstly, they esteemed the Ulama and believed in their spiritual power Secondly, they needed the Ulama to calm the masses, contain them and suppress their revolts. The absence of political and social organizations at that time must have added to the influential role which those Ulama performed in the Egyptian society at that time. Then one finds a middle class known as “ammat al- nas”. It consisted of shopkeepers, food dealers, retailers and distinguished craftsmen. They likewise enjoyed a certain degree of respectability yet, they belonged to lower ranks. The masses or the commoners known as  Doaa Kandil “al- ammah” formed the middle class in the social hierarchy of those days. They were poor laborers who had neither money nor standing. well as people whose purity was suspected like dog- handlers and refuse-collectors were also included in this class. At the bottom of the social ladder one finds the lumpen proletarian called “aradhil al ammah”. This class was subject to wide contempt and rejection whereas, its members were usually involved in illegal and disrespectable activities like robbery and gambling. They made their living through shameful ways and broke the sacred law like wine vendors, usurers. People whose purity was suspected like dog-handlers and refuse-collectors were also included in this class. It is worth mentioning that members of the same profession formed guilds known as "Tawaef" and lived  Doaa Kandil in the same quarters. Such guilds were much like syndicates in our time. Each guild was headed by "Sheikh Al Taefa" who used to serve the interests of the members of his guild, solve their problems and look after them. Non-Muslims lived peacefully in their quarters. In Islamic culture, the “pact of protection” determined their status. Actually, this pact secured them and allowed them to retain their religions, to practise their rituals and to keep their properties. Significantly, many of them attained a high status and had access to first- ranking posts. For example many Copts were appointed to chancellery offices. They also worked as accountants, clerks and agents of the military elite. Women played a vital role in the Egyptian society. They had access to public life and were not  Doaa Kandil isolated in their households as mistakenly believed. Women used to go to markets, mosques and public baths. They used to visit tombs of saints likewise and witness public celebrations. They secured social ties within their neighborhood and exchanged visits with her neighbors and relatives and attended family gatherings. A sizable number of women used to work weather in the countryside or in big cities. Peasant women used to give hand to their husbands in tilling and farming the land. Besides, they used to raise poultry and make dairy products at home to sell them in the markets. Women in big cities had certain professions like mid-wives, match- makers and coiffeuses. Some of them had their own private business which they pursued at home like spinning and weaving. Most notably, they had property rights guaranteed to them by the sacred law of Islam. Therefore, they had  Doaa Kandil full control over their money and their properties unlike their European peers at that time. Some women built up fortunes through investment in trade or Iltizam system. Others devoted part of their wealth to charitable purposes and made "Waqf". Besides, they went to court, sue cases against men if did injustice to them. In other words, they had their own legal identity and independence. Women who belonged to the ruling elite had special private section devoted for them inside their households known as "Harem". The Harem was meant to guard women's privacy in the first place rather than confining her as commonly thought. The decline of the Ottoman Empire: A sharp decline had befallen the Ottoman State soon after the death of Sultan Sulyman the Lawgiver  Doaa Kandil who was regarded as the last of the great Ottoman Sultans. This decline that would last for almost three centuries was due to a number of factors interrelated together. The degradation of the Sultans was probably the most important cause. A line of weak Sultans ascended to the throne of the Ottoman Empire after the death of Sulyman the Lawgiver. They lacked the efficiency of their predecessors and abandoned their responsibilities to their grand viziers to carry them out instead. The decline of the Janissaries corps was another important factor. Although, it had remarkably increased in size, it had declined in quality. Actually, its members became disobedient and difficult to handle. Gradually, they lost their military character and engaged  Doaa Kandil themselves in economic activities Things were worsened with their interference in politics. Besides, bribery and corruption found their way to all Ottoman institutions while offices were sold to the highest bidder regardless to ability and qualifications. The economic hardships which the Ottoman Empire had passed through since the seventeenth century contributed to its decline. This appeared clearly after the flow of cheap silver coming from the Spanish colonies in South America and the New World to Europe which was followed with inflation and monetary distress. All these factors had worked together to undermine the massive foundation of the Ottoman Empire that turned to be the “Sick man” of Europe.  Doaa Kandil Undoubtedly, the decline of the central government in Istanbul had negatively affected the Ottoman existence in all its provinces. In Egypt for example, the authority of the Ottoman governors had nearly diminished. They turned to be puppet governors having no real power. Furthermore, the regiments that were supposed to impose Ottoman power had been largely eroded. This period of Ottoman decline had also witnessed the revival of the Mamluk aristocracy that recovered its former power. Gradually, the members of this neo-Mamluk class had overshadowed the governors and run the country instead. Signs of Ottoman supremacy  Doaa Kandil 1-Proclaiming the Sultan’s name in the Friday sermons (khutba) in the mosque and minting coins bearing his name and title. 2- Sending the annual tribute to the Imperial treasury in Istanbul. The political scene in Egypt during the 18th century The Ottoman sovereignty over Egypt had turned to be a nominal one while the Mamluk beys had by that time access to many leading offices of the state like that of the leader of pilgrimage (Amir Al Hajj), the chief- treasurer (Defterdar) as well as acting-viceroy (Qaiem Maqam.) what made things worse was Mamluks' inclination to depose Ottoman governors at their will or tame them at best. Moreover, heads of Mamluk houses strove to enroll their emancipated Mamluks in these regiments so as to  Doaa Kandil draw pay from the Ottoman treasury while serving Mamluk interests. Besides it would enable them to rise in its ranks and join the military elite of the country. This led eventually to the subordination of these military regiments to Mamluk houses. One gets to know that the annual sum sent to Istanbul had sharply diminished during the eighteenth century. In the same vein, the Mamluk beys used to add false expenses to the obligations of the treasury as a pretext to reduce the tribute while in reality pocketed these deducted sums and diverted them to their own treasuries. The most powerful among those Mamluk beys would become "Sheikh al Balad" (the headman of the city) exercising the actual powers of the governors. No  Doaa Kandil wonder, the "Jameia" meetings were held in his house in order to make national decisions. Ali Bey’s Separatist movement: Ali Bey Al Kabir also known as “Bulut Kapan” or the cloud-catcher, a nickname which certainly implies his ambitious nature. He was of a Caucasian origin. At the age of thirteen, he was sold into slavery by some bandits. He was brought to Ibrahim Katkhuda who trained him. In other words, he started his career as a Mamluk in the household of Ibrahim Katkhuda then he was appointed as selihdar agha (sword bearer) and after that he was appointed as kafradar (treasurer) in his master’s household and finally he became a kashif at the age of twenty two. In 1760 he became sheikh al Balad yet his rivals ousted him from Egypt in 1766 so he sought refuge in Palestine  Doaa Kandil where he met with Sheikh Dahir al Umar the ruler of Gallilie as well as the Ottoman viceroy of Gaza who helped him to return to Egypt. He first went to Upper Egypt to gather his supporters. He also sought the help of Sheikh Hammam the chief of Hawara tribe. In 1667, he managed to enter Cairo and to restore his former position as Sheikh al Balad. Shortly after, he exterminated his rivals and broke the power of the tribal chiefs in Upper and Lower Egypt. That is how he got rid of all internal opposition that could threaten his position. Ali Bey had always dreamt of restoring the old independent Mamluk Sultanate over Egypt and its dependencies and worked hard to realize it. Therefore, he adopted a new military technology by importing modern weaponry from Europe. He also increased his  Doaa Kandil army through buying a huge number of Mamluks and training them. Without loss of time, he dismissed two Ottoman governors in 1768 and 1769 and appointed himself as Qaim Maqam or acting viceroy. He also withheld the annual tribute. Then, he struck coins bearing his name and had his name mentioned in the sermon of the Friday public prayers. In the same manner, he assumed the old title of “Aziz Misr” or the mighty one in Egypt. In 1770, he sent a force under the command of his right-hand man Mohamed bey Abu Al Dahab to Hijaz to settle a dispute between two "Sharifs" and to back up the protege of the Ottoman Sultan. Thus, he spread his control over Hijaz and proceeded to spread his control over Syria likewise.in the following year, he sent his  Doaa Kandil troops headed again by Mohamed bey Abu Al Dahab to invade Syria with the help of Sheikh Daher Al Umar. Without much effort, Abu Al Dahab attacked some Syrian cities, took them easily and besieged Damascus the capital. At this conjuncture, he turned against his master. Clearly, the Ottomans played off his right-hand man Abu Al Dahab against him through this promising him the mastery over Egypt instead. This must have appealed to him because of his big ambitions. Accordingly, he hastily left Damascus and returned back with the troops to Egypt intending to restore the Ottoman hegemony there. However, Ali Bey fled and sought refuge at his friend Sheikh Dahir al Umar in Palestine where he gathered some forces to restore Egypt. The Russians  Doaa Kandil fleet also provided him with some supplies. Ali Bey returned to Egypt with these forces and met with Mohamed Bey at Salihia where Abu Al Dahab made a big victory. Abu Al Dahab not only won the battle but also captured Ali Bey who was wounded during the fighting and died shortly after. That is how the Ottomans managed through implementing their policy of "Divide and Rule" crushed Ali bey and put an end to his dream. Mohamed Bey Abu Al Dahab succeeded his master in Mashiaket al Balad and remained loyal to the Porte to whom he resumed paying the annual tribute till his sudden death in Syria while heading a campaign against Dahir Al Umar in 1775. In the course of this campaign, he committed a horrible massacre at Jaffa and Mount Carmel. Shortly after, he had a fever that lasted for three  Doaa Kandil days and died there. Ironically, he received in the same day of his death an Imperial decree investing him as the governor of Egypt. After the death of Mohamed Bey Abu Al Dahab, two of his former Mamluks: Ibrahim bey and Murad bey established a dumvrite. So while the former held the title of Sheikh al Balad the latter held the title of Amir Al Haj. Cultural and intellectual life: Actually, the Ottomans had always suspected the intentions of the West towards the Muslim world. It was mainly the crusades together with the Portuguese threat that arouse such suspicions. That’s why they tried hard to minimize every possible contact with the West. As a result, they super imposed a very long isolation on their subjects. No wonder, they failed to catch up with new  Doaa Kandil innovations or keep with the rapid progress which Europe experienced since the Age of Renaissance. Moreover, this long isolation caused stagnation, lack of creativity, and unease to adopt new techniques and devices if not total rejection. This appeared clearly in their refusal to print books and their preference to copy them instead regardless to the time factor as well as the efforts which the printing press saves. What added fuel to fire, the wide spread of illiteracy among their subjects. They did very little to enlighten their people or to combat their illiteracy. In Egypt, Al Azhar mosque formed the chief learning institution. Although, it played a great and important role in the intellectual life, it was still insufficient. Besides, education was restricted to language and religion only while basic science and humanities were entirely neglected. There were no schools sponsored by the state.  Doaa Kandil The only available schools at that time were the "Katatib" sponsored by some wealthy people as some kind of charitable work. Those "Katatib" were much like elementary schools that taught its students reading, writing, counting and reciting sections of the Holy Quran only. With ignorance prevailing all over the country and among all classes, superstition, magic and occult flourished in the Egyptian society. This must have paved the way for the rise of many pretenders claiming that they were gifted with supernatural powers. Those pretenders badly exploited the poor masses who much believed in their spiritual power and their capability to perform miracles. Members of the ruling elite believed in superstition and miracles performed by claimants likewise. That is why  Doaa Kandil they used to bestow and on them instead of checking them. Such belief must have aggravated the situation and enabled those pretenders to exert influence over mass population. Yet, one must recall here the unprecedented attitude of one of the ruling class who broke this rule. This was Abd Al Rahman Katkhuda who proved to be a cultivated person and reversed such superstitious beliefs. People, at his time, claimed the holiness of a goat which they thought able to work miracles. Feeling sorry for the spread of such belief, he ordered the slaughter of the famous holy goat and fed the people with its meat in order to crush this silly superstition that contradicted with both the teachings of Islam and the dictates of reason. However, Abd Al Rahman Katkhuda was an exception among his contemporaries who supported such devastating beliefs.  Doaa Kandil Sadly, the rational way of thinking was dramatically overshadowed if not nearly abandoned. So while the awakening Europe was calling for the employment of scientific methods and submission to the dictates of natural reason, the intellectual level in Egypt had reached its lowest ebb. Living conditions: The disagreeable situation of Cairo during the Ottoman age had shocked all its visitors. This was the inevitable result of the negligence of the rulers who paid very little attention towards public works and public services. They made no plans for its growth or expansion. They spend no money on the construction of wide paved roads to facilitate transportation or on the installation of a sanitary drainage system for sewage disposal. Cairo's environs were full of hills of dust,  Doaa Kandil formed by the rubbish accumulating every day. Its streets were winding, narrow and filthy ones. The lack of basic installations and facilities had yielded people to suffer. Actually, it became a city of hard living for them. Because of such poor sanitary conditions, epidemics spread every now and then. The most dangerous of which was “plague” that often swept across the entire country and wiped out thousands of people. What added fuel to fire, were the famines that usually followed such horrible epidemics. The masses used to live in the center of the city close to their activities. Nevertheless, they couldn’t afford building houses there that is why they turned to share others in a public dwelling place “Rabe”. A "Rabe" was a multistoried tenement where they could hire an apartment. The lower parts were probably used as shops and storehouses. Those who couldn’t afford the rent of  Doaa Kandil an apartment in a "Rabe" lived in “Ahwash” or courtyards. They were massive open areas surrounded by enclosure wall where its inhabitants lived in small huts placed next to each other. It should be noted that Members of the same profession were grouped together and lived in the same residential area that was named after this profession. Religious communities and people of the same origin had their own quarters too. In the countryside, peasants lived in houses built of mid-brick and had a ceiling made from palm reeds mixed with hay and mud. To designate themselves from the mass population, the ruling elite developed their own residential areas known for their charm. The areas of  Doaa Kandil “Birket Al Fil” and "Al Azbakiyya" became the principal residential area of the aristocrats.  Doaa Kandil The French expedition on Egypt  Doaa Kandil The French expedition on Egypt Preludes of the French expedition on Egypt: France had endeavored throughout the 18th century to occupy Egypt. Both Louis XIV and Louis XV had seriously considered this possibility considered this expansionist project, nevertheless they didn't carry it out. Shortly after the French revolution, this project would pop again to surface. This time it was the young ambitious general Bonaparte who adopted this project. Actually, he was much obsessed with it that he struggled to carry it out. After giving him a hard time, the "Directory" at last agreed to it and charged Bonaparte with executing it.  Doaa Kandil Most notably, the French expedition on Egypt could only be understood in the light of the Anglo-French heated colonial rivalry. Causes of the French expedition: A number of factors stood beyond the French expedition on Egypt: -Bonaparte's intensions to reach India through Egypt and cut the communication lines between Britain and its colonies there. -Bonaparte's intensions to establish a French colony in Egypt and make use of its resources. -Bonaparte's intensions to emulate the glories of Alexander the Great.  Doaa Kandil Bonaparte's preparations: As soon as Bonaparte got the approval of the "Directory", he started making his preparations in secrecy. He concealed the news of his expedition, lest the British fleet under the command of Nelson should stop him. He read a huge number of books about Egypt to get himself acquainted with all its conditions. Those readings formed the basis of the policy which he would follow in Egypt afterwards. In May 1798, he set out to Egypt from the port of Toulon. It should be mentioned that he headed first to Malta in order to camouflage the British fleet that was after him. On 1st of July 1798 the French “Army of the Orient” that consisted of some 36,000 men landed at the Alexandria. In spite of the fierce resistance of the people of Alexandria led by its governor Al Sayyid Muhammad  Doaa Kandil Kurayyim, he easily captured it. Bent on winning the Egyptian population to his side, Bonaparte issued a proclamation that represented him as a liberator rather than invader. He claimed in such proclamation which he distributed that at Alexandria that his only concern was to save the Egyptians from Mamluk oppression and help them to restore their rights. He also put much emphasis on his high respect of Islam and his friendship with the Ottoman Sultan. Nevertheless, the native Egyptians were not deceived by his impressive slogans. They knew from the very beginning that he was their enemy not their friend as he claimed. After establishing their position in Alexandria, the expeditionary troops began their advance to Cairo. At the same time, Bonaparte gave his orders to Admiral Brueys to sail with the French fleet to Corfu to avoid encounters with the British fleet that might come back at  Doaa Kandil any time. However, Admiral Brueys remained there against Bonaparte's orders. On the other side, the Mamluk Beys met at Qasr al Aini receiving the news of the arrival of the French fleet, together with the Ottoman governors and the Ulema. It seems that the news of the disembarkment of the French fleet didn't terribly alarm them as they took it lightly. No wonder, Murad bey overconfidently shouted that he would crush them under the hooves of Mamluks' horses. In this meeting, the Beys made a number of decisions. Firstly, to send an envoy overland to carry these news to the Sultan in Istanbul Secondly, to entrust Murad bey with organizing Mamluk troops and marching to Damanhour to meet the French and stop their advent.  Doaa Kandil Thirdly, to detain all Europeans who took residence in Cairo a safety measure. The first encounter between the French and the Mamluks took place at Shubrakhit on 13th of July 1798. Thanks to French artillery as well as their perfect order, the Mamluks were routed in this battle. Their old way of fighting depending mainly on charge and rapid withdrawal didn't work out this time. The modern weaponry of the French gave them the upper hand. After his defeat at Shubrakhit, Murad bey retreated to Cairo while Bonaparte resumed his march towards Cairo under July burning sun. In Cairo, the Mamluks divided their troops. Part of them was stationed at Imbaba under the leadership of Murad bey while the others stayed at Bulaq under the leadership of Ibrahim bey.  Doaa Kandil On 21st of July 1798 Bonaparte fought off the Mamluks again in the Battle of the Pyramids approximately nine miles from the pyramids. He defeated the Mamluk cavalry using common and extremely well-organized infantry squares, with cannons at the corners and supplies safely on the inside. Such squares were the key to his decisive victory. On the contrary, Mamluks' valor failed to save the day. They suffered devastating losses in this battle (nearly 4000 Mamluks were killed in less than one hour) At this juncture, Murad bey resorted to Upper Egypt to re-organize his lines while Ibrahim bey headed to Gaza and waited for the arrival of Ottoman troops. Battle of Abu Qir Shortly after, the British returned to Alexandria as Bonaparte expected. The naval battle of Abu Qir ensued  Doaa Kandil between the two fleets on 1st of August 1798. The British fleet led by Nelson was by all means superior to the French one. Nelson emerged victorious after the destruction of the French fleet. The French flagship "Orient" exploded while Admiral Brueys was killed on its board. That is how the French expedition was left in a critical situation in Egypt. The results of this battle could be summarized as following: - They lost every hope to either go to India or to return home to France which shattered their morals. - They were besieged in Egypt while all their communications with the Directory were cut off. - They would not receive any supplies from France so they must depend on local resources to sustain it.  Doaa Kandil - Their defeat would entice the native Egyptians to rise against them at any time. Therefore, Bonaparte had to adopt a new policy to overcome this crisis. He tried to befriend the Ulema through establishing a local advisory council from among them. It was headed by Sheikh Sharqawy the rector of Al Azhar mosque at that time. Nevertheless, the ulema never sold their loyalty to Bonaparte as he mistakenly thought. He also tried to fully occupy the masses through making big celebrations on numerous occasions and at short intervals like that of the birthday of the Prophet, the rise of the inundation of the Nile and the anniversary of the French Republic.  Doaa Kandil At the same time, he tried to secure his position in Cairo through fortifying the city and removing the gates of the living quarters. Ironically, Bonaparte had even tried to conclude an agreement with Murad bey and give him the rule of Upper Egypt if he would give away his arms and commit himself to pay the due taxes of Upper Egypt to Bonaparte. Murad turned down the offer and resumed fighting the French troops led by Disaix in Upper Egypt. Running out of financial resources, he had no other alternative but to impose new taxes in order to provide for the expedition. Among those taxes which he invented was the "Property tax" paid to register one's property in French records. To make the outmost use of the country's resources, Bonaparte established "L'instuit de l'Egypt "from the  Doaa Kandil scholars who accompanied him. They conducted researches in many fields. Their works would be collected and published in a massive book consisting of more than 20 volumes known as "Description de l'Egypte" Meanwhile, Al Sayyid Muhammad Kurayyim was convicted of divulge French moves to the Mamluks and was sentenced to death. He was executed in front of the masses which badly hurt their national feelings. The interplay of all such pressures which the native Egyptians suffered led eventually to the outbreak of Cairo's First Revolt on 21st of October 1798. Cairo's First Revolt At that day, a large number of native Egyptians decided to march towards Al Azbakiyya to meet with Bonaparte  Doaa Kandil and present their grievances. They first gathered in front of the house of Ibrahim Effandi Adham the chief judge located at Bayn al Qasreen and asked him to join their march. Afraid that things might go out of control, he refused which much disappointed them. On hearing of the crowd at Bayn al Qasreen, the French general Dupuy rushed to see what's going on. The masses surrounded him in a narrow alley there. One of the French agents named Barthelemy fired at the crowds which caused the spread of panic and disorder among them. Amidst such mess, General Dupuy was killed and the crowd headed towards Al Azhar mosque that became their rallying point. On hearing the news, Bonaparte who was at Roda Island that day, returned back immediately. Without loss of time, he set up the cannons at Muqattam hills and the citadel. He directed them towards Al Azhar mosque which he regarded as the center of the revolt.He asked  Doaa Kandil the Ulema to suppress the revolt but none listened to them. Thus, he cannonaded Al Azhar mosque. It was such a heavy cannonade that the mosque was about to collapse. It lasted for 4 hours after which he allowed his soldiers to make their way inside the mosque. They viciously violated the mosque and committed a number of follies there. They broke its lanterns and bookcases and tied their horses to the Qibla niche. What was even worse they started urinating inside in order to defane it. They arrested the revolutionaries and Bonaparte gave his orders to execute them and throw their corpses to the Nile. One can safely say, he followed brutal means to suppress this revolt and intimidate Egyptians. He also dissolved the local advisory council which he previously formed in order to punish the native Egyptians. Meanwhile, Bonaparte received news of Ottoman moves towards Syria. Immediately, he decided to take the  Doaa Kandil offensive and proceeded towards Syria. He met the Ottoman army at "Mount Tabour" in January 1799 and easily defeated them. On his way, he laid came by Jaffa and laid a siege on it. To his disgrace, Bonaparte committed a horrible massacre there in spite of the surrender of its garrison. However, plague struck his army at Jaffa to worsen his position the siege which he lately imposed on the city of Acre was a big failure. The British fleet on the Mediterranean provided the people of the city with supplies to withstand Bonaparte's siege. He couldn't enter it and returned to Egypt extremely disappointed. He met another Ottoman army in the same year at the overland battle of Abuqir where he emerged victorious once again. The news of the formation of another European coalition against France had much alarmed him. He decided to leave secretly to France to face such grave threat. Before his departure, he left a  Doaa Kandil letter to General Kleber ordering him to take his place in the leadership of the expedition. Kleber's & Menou Kleber believed that their stay in Egypt was a waste of time and that they were all committed to return back to France amidst such hard time. Therefore, he entered into negotiations with the Ottoman Empire. At last, they concluded Al Areesh agreement in January 1800.This agreement allowed the French to return to France with their weapons and equipment on board of Ottoman ships and at their expenses. On hearing the news of the agreement, people rejoiced and held big celebrations everywhere. The French troops started evacuating some military sites while the Ottomans replaced them. However, Britain soon objected to this agreement and insisted that the French should leave as prisoners of war  Doaa Kandil after surrendering their weapons. Kleber refused to submit to British will and nullified the agreement. He met the Ottoman army at Heliopolis and defeated them in March 1800. During Kleber's absence while fighting the Ottomans, the inhabitants of Cairo revolted against him. Without any signs of remorse, he bombarded the living quarter of Bulaq to suppress Cairo's second revolt. A Syrian young man named Sulyman Al Halaby was studying in Al Azhar mosque decided to assassinate Kleber. He disguised himself as a beggar and stabbed him in the garden of his palace. He was arrested, tried and sentenced to death by impalement. General Menou succeeded Kleber in the leadership of the French expedition. He had converted to Islam and called himself Abd Allah and married an Egyptian  Doaa Kandil woman. Unlike Kleber, he wanted to stay in Egypt and establish a permanent French colony there. At this point, Great Britain decided to military interfere in Egypt to expel the French. Joint Anglo-Turkish troops arrived at the country for this purpose. The French divided their troops between Cairo and Alexandria to halt their advance. The French troops in Cairo headed by Billiard soon surrendered while those in Alexandria headed by Menou himself continued to fight. They were defeated in series of encounters. As a result, Menou was forced to sign the Treaty of capitulation in 1801 and to evacuate Egypt. No doubt, the departure of the French marked the beginning of a new era for Egypt.  Doaa Kandil The impact of the French expedition on the Egyptian society: The French expedition broke that long isolation which was superimposed on Egypt by the Ottoman Empire. It was like a window on the modern civilization of the West. It intensified the colonial rivalry between the Britain and France and made Egypt a bone of contention. It revealed the weakness or rather impotency of the Mamluk rule in Egypt and aroused people's resentment against them. It caused the rise of national sense that was best manifested in the local resistance against the French.  Doaa Kandil Introducing new thoughts, ideologies and practices to the Egyptian society. Printing appeared for the first time in Egypt at the hands of the French who brought with them a printing press. Sadly, they insisted to carry it back with them at their departure rather than leaving it to help in enlightening Egyptians. Journalism likewise made its first appearance in Egypt at the time of the French expedition. Two French journals were periodically published at the time of the French expedition. They were: "La Decade Egyptienne" and "Courrier d'Egypte" The discovery of Rosetta stone and decipherment of the ancient Egyptian language.  Doaa Kandil Sparking the interest in the ancient Egyptian civilization as well as the rise of Egyptomania all over the world. The studies which the French scholars conducted in different parts of the country together with the art works of the artists who accompanied the French expedition made a big contribution to the historiography of Egypt. They provided a clear picture of the Egyptian society at the closing years of the 18th century. Their works were compiled afterwards to form "Description de l 'Egypte"  Doaa Kandil Political turmoil The departure of the French expedition in 1801 had caused the rise of wide agitation in the Egyptian society. This was a time of great ferment and change that broke the long prevailing inertia. It created a power vacuum that's why Affaf Marsot rightly describes Egypt at that time as a country without a master. Things were not the same. The Ottomans were now bent on eliminating the Mamluks whom they held responsible for the coming of the French. On the other side, the Mamluks mistakenly thought that they would restore their former power. They failed to realize the changing realities. The French expedition had grabbed the British attention to the significance of Egypt's strategic location. Therefore, they tried hard to secure a  Doaa Kandil foothold in there. As a result, they delayed withdrawing their troops from Egypt after the departure of the French expedition. They stayed in a number of Egyptian ports and allied themselves with the Mamluks. As mentioned above, the Mamluks thought that by the departure of the French, the country would revert to its former situation. They failed to realize that their time- worn system could no longer function in Egypt At the same time, the Ottomans grew reluctant to share again Egypt's wealth and suzerainty with the Mamluks who caused them all these troubles. They wanted to protect their interests in Egypt at any cost. Therefore, they pursued a vindictive policy throughout these troubled years against the Mamluks.  Doaa Kandil To one's surprise, the Mamluks didn't expect that sudden change in Ottoman policy. The only one among them who suspected the Ottoman intensions towards them was Al-Alfi bey. He always distrusted the Ottomans and warned his fellows against them. However, none paid attention to such a warning or listened to him. Alfi's anticipations soon came true. The Mamluks were summoned to meet Qabudan pasha at Alexandria on board of his ship. When they went up to the ship, they found that the Qabudan pasha wasn't there. His men tried to disarm the Mamluks and attack them. However, they hastily drew their swords and tried to defend themselves. A large number of Mamluks were killed in this den and the rest were arrested. At the same time, the pasha had arrested a number of  Doaa Kandil prominent Mamluk emirs at Cairo. Those who managed to escape took refuge at their allies, the British troops stationed at Giza. Furthermore, the Porte soon set a ban on the importation of new Mamluks thus dealt a stroke to the Mamluk system. Nevertheless, the Ottomans were forced to release the detained Mamluks under British pressures. Shortly after, the British troops were compelled to leave Egypt in 1803 after signing Amiens Treaty with France. It should be noted that Muhammad bey Alfi accompanied them to England to make with the British government the necessary arrangements for the return of the Mamluks to power. On the other hand, the Mamluk Beys made their way to their stronghold in Upper Egypt as usual. There, they withheld the grain shipments causing a food  Doaa Kandil scarcity in Cairo and a progressive rise in the price of rations. It seems safe to say that they wished to exert pressures on the Ottomans in order to acquiesce to their requests. Meanwhile, the Albanian soldiers revolted against the Ottoman governor and plundered the city. They seized authority and sent to the Mamluk beys in Upper Egypt inviting them to return safely to Cairo to unite with him. Without delay, the Mamluks beys headed to Cairo under the leadership of Ibrahim bey Al- Kabir. Throughout these turbulent days, chaos spread everywhere. Although Ibrahim bey was the acting viceroy, he practiced no real power. He had grown too old so authorized Osman bey Bardisi to act on his behalf and restore stability to the city. Muhammad Ali  Doaa Kandil the leader of the Albanian troops cultivated a friendship with Osman bey Bardisi who became the virtual ruler of Egypt during the absence of Muhammad bey Alfi in England. At that time, Muhammad Ali rose into importance. He was born on the Aegean seaport of Kavalla in Macedonia in 1769. He first came to Egypt in 1799 among the Ottoman troops that fought the French at the land battle of Abu Qir. Since then, he worked hard to rule it. It was his remarkable patience, his sharp wit and above all his strong will that enabled him eventually to realize his big ambitions. He rose in ranks till he became the commander of the Albanian troops in Egypt. To Bardisi's chagrin, the Albanian troops demanded their wages that were in arrears and  Doaa Kandil violence broke out in the city. Apparently, it was Muhammad Ali who skillfully worked behind the scenes and aroused the troops. To calm down the soldiers to end those acts of violence that terrified the native subjects, Osman bey imposed a property tax on the houses, magazines and shops similar to that imposed by the French during their stay in Egypt. The poverty stricken masses objected to this new illegal tax. Actually, this tax had spurred their long bottled- anger so they wept, shouted, yelled and threatened the Beys and prayed for their dismissal from Egypt. They even crowded around the Mamluk houses and closed the gates of the city. They kept on screaming and shouting "what could you take Bardisi from those who were broke and penniless?!"  Doaa Kandil At this juncture, Muhammad Ali tried to exploit this situation for his advantage. He rebuked Osman bey on public saying that that their wages must be paid from the Imperial treasury rather than from the depleted pockets of the poor subjects. That's how Muhammad Ali won popularity and emerged as the champion of the poor who defended their rights. He also won the trust of the Ulema. Before long, the Albanian soldiers stirred by Muhammad Ali attacked the house of Osman beys as well as the houses of other Mamluk beys and expelled them out of Cairo. The struggle between the two parties was to continue yet the Mamluks failed to enter the city of Cairo or re-install their supremacy.  Doaa Kandil Rise of Muhammad Ali to power In the course of these events, Ahmed Khurshid pasha was appointed a governor of Egypt. To restore order, Khurshid pasha imported new troops the so- called "Delhis" who proved to be even worse than the Albanians. Their irresponsible attitude and their tyrannical practices had caused the outburst of the poor subjects who fall victim to their atrocities. The inhabitants of Cairo resorted to the Ulema and begged them to interfere to put an end to their abuse. The Ulema in turn asked the pasha to check them but in vain. The Delhis defied the pasha's orders and went on with their evil acts. To express their discontent the  Doaa Kandil Ulema deserted their lectures at Al- Azhar Mosque, the mob shouted in the streets and the shopkeepers closed their stores. Amidst such turmoil, an imperial decree arrived from Istanbul investing Muhammad Ali governor of Jeddah. Nevertheless, Muhammad Ali wasn't content with such promotion. He led covetous eye on Egypt since his first arrival. Therefore, he was determined not to allow anything to hinder him from realizing his end even if it was the Imperial will of the Porte. He had already taken the side of the native population in more than one occasion thus appeared to be mass-oriented. Moreover, he befriended the Ulema especially al-Sayyid Umar Makram known for his extraordinary skills in mobilizing the masses and inspiring them. He  Doaa Kandil repeatedly declared to them his disapproval of Khurshid's oppressive policy towards his poor subjects. Fed up of the excesses of the Delhis and the incapacity of Khurshid pasha, the Ulema soon assembled at the house of the chief judge to find a way out of this impasse. After long discussions, they decided to depose Khurshid pasha and appoint Muhammad Ali instead. Then, they headed to the house of Muhammad Ali at Al-Azbakiah on 13th of May 1805. At first, Muhammad Ali showed reluctance to accept such appointment then he agreed to this nomination. It should be noted here that Muhammad Ali's appointment was a preconditioned one. He had to abide himself by justice and to consult the Ulema in all country's affairs.  Doaa Kandil The Ulema informed Khurshid Pasha with his deposition but he refused the whole matter announcing that he could only be deposed by the Porte not the Peasants. Certainly, his reply had provoked the rage of the masses. In response to this refusal, the masses besieged the citadel where the pasha had already stored rations and weapons. Meanwhile, the Ulema wrote a petition and sent it to the Porte demanding the recognition to Muhammad Ali's election. The masses bought arms and those who couldn't find arms, equipped themselves with knives, sticks, stones, and the like. Street- fighting soon broke out everywhere. It was clear that the native Egyptians were bent on imposing their will no matter the sacrifices. Actually, they were not defending Muhammad Ali in person as  Doaa Kandil they were in fact defending their natural right to elect their own ruler, to take part in making national decisions and to have a say in running their country's affairs. At last an envoy of the Porte arrived from Istanbul carrying an imperial decree naming Muhammad Ali governor of Egypt. The descent of Khurshid pasha from the citadel was by all means a watershed in modern Egyptian history as it commemorated the triumph of public that was not taken in consideration before. The hardships which Muhammad Ali early faced In spite of the official installation of Muhammad Ali, Alfi bey didn't give up. He tried to remove Muhammad Ali through the Porte. His agents worked hard at the Imperial court to obtain a pardon for the  Doaa Kandil Mamluk beys in order to return to power. It seems that he bribed the court and promised to pay a huge sum of money to the treasury in return for such a pardon. Moreover, the British intercession for the Mamluks at Alfi bey's request had also helped in changing the stance of the Porte towards them. By the end of June in 1806, Qapudan Pasha arrived at Egypt with an imperial decree pardoning the Mamluk beys, restoring them to their former functions and more importantly, transferring Muhammad Ali to Salonik and appointing Musa pasha instead of him. After unfolding this Imperial decree, Muhammad Ali made it clear to Qapudan pasha that he would not submit to the wishes of the Porte and wasn’t going to leave Egypt even if it took him to war. Therefore, he  Doaa Kandil mobilized his troops, stuffed the citadel with weaponry and girded himself for action. The Ulema objected likewise to that decree that's why they addressed a petition to the Porte condemning the Mamluk beys for their misrule. They also defended Muhammad Ali and spoke in his favor. Then they sent it to the Porte. After a while, another convoy arrived from Istanbul carrying another imperial decree allowing Muhammad Ali to stay in Egypt's governorship. Shortly after, captain pasha and Musa pasha set out for Istanbul. That's how Muhammad Ali set a firm foot in Egypt. The British campaign on Egypt in 1807  Doaa Kandil At this point, the British government thought that it was deemed necessary to send a military campaign to Egypt in order to defend its vital interests there. The British government informed Muhammad bey al- Alfi their chief ally in Egypt about this forthcoming campaign and advised him to remain with his troops in the Delta to join the British troops at its arrival. Although, Alfi tried hard to rally the Mamluks and unify them all to face their common enemy, they remained scattered. So instead of flocking to Alfi's banner and co-operating with him, they occupied themselves with internal conflicts as usual. Alfi bey remained in the Buhiera province at the instructions of the British government almost for three  Doaa Kandil months waiting for the arrival of the campaign. Run out of provisions, Alfi bey was forced head towards Upper Egypt in search for food and better conditions. However as soon as Alfi reached Dahshur, he suffered hematemesis and died suddenly. On hearing the news of Alfi's sudden death, Muhammad Ali must have stifled a yawn. According to Al- Jabrti, he rejoiced and said that now only he could rule Egypt without worries because there was no one else left whom he could reckon with. At last, the British expedition arrived at Alexandria in March 1807under the command of General Fraser. It goes without saying that Alfi's death must have shocked them and upset that plan which they hatched with him. Nevertheless, they contacted the Mamluks in Upper Egypt and asked them to join their campaign as they  Doaa Kandil both shared common interests. On the other hand, the Mamluks hesitated in joining them. They only watched at close range everything but remained themselves at distance. Besides, they kept on giving false but time- consuming excuses to the British in order to justify their slackening position. Fully aware of his critical situation, Muhammad Ali endeavored to reconcile with the Mamluks to avoid their harm. Through the mediation of the Ulema, Muhammad Ali had what he wanted. He temporarily reconciled with the Mamluks who refrained from joining the British campaign. Unfortunately, the British troops seized Alexandria without resistance due to the collaboration of its Turkish governor with the British troops.  Doaa Kandil Shortly after, they headed to Rosetta to serve as their launching pad inside the country. However, its brave governor decided not to surrender it under any circumstances. Therefore, he organized the local resistance there and devised a genius plan ensnare the British troops. Native Egyptians fought a fierce battle against the British and scarified willingly their lives to repel the invaders. No wonder, they emerged victorious and heavily inflicted the British and embarrassed them. Another encounter took place nearby Rosetta two weeks later and again the British were defeated. After such decisive victories, Muhammad Ali tried to communicate with the British command in order to negotiate with them. He offered them his friendship  Doaa Kandil and promised to safe guard their interests in Egypt claiming that he was more reliable than the Mamluks. He also released the British prisoners to prove his good intensions. In return, he demanded their departure from Alexandria. Less willing to admit their failure in Egypt, the British government arrogantly turned down his offer. Nevertheless, they were forced to evacuate the city of Alexandria shortly after and left the whole country. The departure of the British troops marked a turning point in the relations between Muhammad Ali and the Mamluks. They had no other allies whom they seek their help. Now with the abandonment of the British government to their cause, the death of their prominent leaders, the wary state they suffered from  Doaa Kandil after that constant fighting, they became an easy prey for their enemy. Regarding Muhammad Ali, he consolidated his position in Egypt. He appeared before the Porte as a hero who delivered the British troops and defended his province. Besides, he obtained an official acknowledgement from Istanbul that bestowed honors on him. It comes as a little surprise that he tried shortly after to rid himself of all his opponents in order to exercise absolute power.  Doaa Kandil The massacre of the citadel: Now time was ripe for Muhammad Ali to put an end to that Mamluks who had reached their lowest ebb but still bothered him. Therefore, he invited them to the citadel on the 1st of March 1811 to attend the big ceremony held on the occasion of investing his son Tousson to head a campaign sent to Hijaz. This invitation was nothing but an ambush he set for them. They all went up to the citadel in their full costume. They sit with the pasha for a while, drank coffee with him and laughed together. Muhammad Ali had already hatched a plot to attack the Mamluks inside the citadel during the troops’ parade. The procession started and everything went according to the plan. The Mamluks found themselves all of a  Doaa Kandil sudden trapped in a descending rocky causeway alley while Muhammad Ali's troops placed downwards started firing on them. It was such a horrible massacre that almost 500 Mamluks were killed that day. When the news of this massacre reached Ibrahim bey and the rest of the Mamluks in Upper Egypt, they mourned their fellows and dressed themselves in black. Then they left to Nubia and Dongola to spare themselves. Nevertheless, Muhammad Ali would send a campaign afterwards to annex Sudan and eliminate the remaining Mamluk pockets there. With the same determination, Muhammad Ali gradually weakened the power of the Ulema who were the spokesmen of the people. No wonder, he banished Al Sayyid Umar Makram to Damietta in order to check the rest and mute their  Doaa Kandil voice. That's how, he silenced every opposition and assumed absolute power. Muhammad Ali's series of reforms After securing his position in Egypt and maintaining stability and internal order there, Muhammad Ali initiated a long-term and rather all-inclusive reform program. He promoted education through introducing new Western-style school system and state educational institutions. He paid much attention to higher education that's why he established a number of colleges like those of medicine, engineering, translation and others to produce highly-qualified personnel for his new regime. He also sent students missions to Europe in order to catch up with modern sciences and latest developments and technologies. To disseminate  Doaa Kandil knowledge far and wide, he established Bulaq printing press. That is to say, he revived printing once again in Egypt after its disappearance in the wake of the departure of the French expedition. At the same time, he built a modern disciplined army modeled on Western patterns and hired a number of French experts like Colonel Seve to modernize army tactics, arts of war and ways of fighting. For the same purpose, he established military schools like those of artillery, cavalry and command and staff. More importantly, he recruited Egyptians for the first time and provided them with the best training available at the time. Similarly, he built a modern fleet together with a shipbuilding foundry and a navy school at Alexandria.  Doaa Kandil To supply the needs of his military like weapons, ammunition, uniforms and the like, he devoted much of his efforts to industrialization. As a result, he built modern steam-powered factories for the first time in Egypt. This marked the transition towards machine- based manufacturing causing a gigantic increase in production capacity. This appeared clearly in the textiles industry. He also established iron foundries and tanneries. It is worth mentioning that Muhammad Ali in his search for new financial resources laid a state monopoly system on the country's chief products. In the same vein, Muhammad Ali abolished the iltizam land-farming system in order to put his hands on the revenues of the land. He set likewise a state monopoly  Doaa Kandil on the major crops which the peasants were compelled to sell them to the government at fixed and relatively low prices. To increase the productivity of the cultivated land, Muhammad Ali cotton undertook massive irrigation projects causing the transition from basins irrigation to perennial irrigation. For the same purpose, he built a Nile barrage to the north of Cairo at Al Qanater and dug "Al Mahmoudiah" canal. He also introduced new crops like long-staple cotton that would later become a big source of wealth for Egypt. Muhammad Ali also made tremendous efforts to improve public health. With the help of the French physician Clot bey whom he hired, Muhammad Ali provided medical services and health facilities for the  Doaa Kandil native Egyptians and fiercely combated the spread of both endemic and epidemic diseases. Regarding administration, Muhammad Ali established a highly centralized administrative system consolidating autocratic personal rule. One can safely say that the professional bureaucracy which Muhammad Ali formed was the fundamental basis of his modern state. He developed a new hierarchy with clear-cut and well-defined jurisdiction. As far as the provincial administration is con