Modern Forms of Communication PDF

English Communcation BHMAECC-II UNIT: 1 COMMUNICATION - INTRODUCTION, MEANING & DEFINITION Structure 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Objectives 1.3 Communication: Meaning and Concept 1.4 Historical Background of Communication 1.4.1 Fayol‘...

English Communcation BHMAECC-II UNIT: 1 COMMUNICATION - INTRODUCTION, MEANING & DEFINITION Structure 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Objectives 1.3 Communication: Meaning and Concept 1.4 Historical Background of Communication 1.4.1 Fayol‘s Contribution 1.4.2 Barnard‘s Contribution 1.5 Definitions of Communication 1.6 Models of Communication 1.6.1 Shannon's Model of the Communication Process 1.6.2 Intermediary Models of the Communication Process 1.7 The Communication Process 1.8 Functions of Communication 1.9 Importance of Communication 1.10 Types of Communication 1.10 Summary 1.11 Glossary 1.12 Answers to Check your Progress 1.13 Bibliography 1.14 Suggested Readings 1.15 Terminal Questions 1.1 INTRODUCTION In this unit, we discussed about the word ‗communication‘. The word "communicate" is derived from the word "common" - to share, exchange, send along, transmit, talk, gesture, write, put in use, relate. So an investigation of this subject might begin with the question: What do all studies of communication have in common? What are the shared concepts that make the study of "communication" different from the study of subjects such as "thought" or "literature" or "life?" When someone says, "This is a communication problem," what does that mean? 1.2 Objectives After reading this unit, you will be able to:  Understand the meaning and concept of Communication  Understand the Process of Communication Uttarakhand Open University 1 English Communcation BHMAECC-II  Understand the importance of Communication  Understand the functions of Communication 1.2 COMMUNICATION: MEANING AND CONCEPT Communication establishes relationships and makes organizing possible. Every message has a purpose or objective. The sender intends -- whether consciously or unconsciously -- to accomplish something by communicating. In organizational contexts, messages typically have a definite objective: to motivate, to inform, to teach, to persuade, to entertain, or to inspire. This definite purpose is, in fact, one of the principal differences between casual conversation and managerial communication. Effective communication in the organization centers on well-defined objectives that support the organization's goals and mission. Supervisors strive to achieve understanding among parties to their communications.Organizational communication establishes a pattern of formal communication channels to carry information vertically and horizontally. (The organization chart displays these channels.) To ensure efficient and effective accomplishment of objectives, information is exchanged. Information is passed upward from employees to supervisors and laterally to adjacent departments. Instructions relating to the performance of the department and policies for conducting business are conveyed downward from supervisors to employees. The organization carries information from within the department back up to top management. Management furnishes information about how things are going, notifies the supervisor of what the problems are, and provides requests for clarification and help. Supervisors, in turn, keep their employees informed and render assistance. Supervisors continually facilitate the process of gaining necessary clarification and problem solving; both up and down the organization. Also, supervisors communicate with sources outside the organization, such as vendors and customers. Communication is the process by which a message or information is exchanged from a sender to a receiver. For example a production manager (sender) may send a message to a sales manager (receiver) asking for sales forecasts for the next 6 months so they can plan production levels. The sales manager would then reply (feedback) to the production manager with the appropriate figures. This is an example of internal communication, i.e. when communications occur between employees of a business. Communication therefore links together all the different activities involved in a business and ensures all employees are working towards the same goal and know exactly what they should be doing and Uttarakhand Open University 2 English Communcation BHMAECC-II by when. Effective communication is therefore fundamental to the success of a business. A business will of course need to communicate with people or organisations outside of the business. This is known as external communication. For example a marketing manager will need to tell customers of a new special pricing offers or the finance director may need to ask banks for a loan. Receivers of Messages Internal External  Workers  Customers  Directors  Local community  Managers  Suppliers  Shareholders  Government  Banks Effective communication is all about conveying your messages to other people clearly and unambiguously. It's also about receiving information that others are sending to you, with as little distortion as possible. Doing this involves effort from both the sender of the message and the receiver. And it's a process that can be fraught with error, with messages muddled by the sender, or misinterpreted by the recipient. When this isn't detected, it can cause tremendous confusion, wasted effort and missed opportunity.In fact, communication is only successful when both the sender and the receiver understand the same information as a result of the communication. 1.4 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF COMMUNICATION Early discussions of management gave very little emphasis to communication. Among the pioneering management theorists, Henri Fayol was about the only one who gave a detailed analysis of and supplied a meaningful solution to the problem of communication. 1.4.1 FAYOL‟S CONTRIBUTION The diagram shows how Fayol presented a simplified version of the Formal organisation. If the formal channels in this organisation were strictly followed and F wanted to talk/communicate with P, the communication would have to go through E-D-C-B-A-L-M-N-O-P and back again. In other words, F would have to go through a total of twenty positions. On the other hand, if F could lay a gangplank, to P, it would allow the two employees F and P to deal at one sitting, and in a few hours with some questions or other which via the scalar chain would pass through twenty transmissions, inconvenience many people, involve masses of paper, lose weeks or months to get to a conclusion less satisfactory generally than the one which could have been obtained via direct contact as Uttarakhand Open University 3 English Communcation BHMAECC-II between F and P. This gangplank concept has direct implications for horizontal communication systems in modern formal organisations. 1.4.2 BARNARD‟S CONTRIBUTION It was largely Chester Barnard in the late 1930‘s who meaningfully developed communication as a vital dynamic of Organisational behaviour. He was convinced that Communication is the major shaping force in the organisation. He ranked it with common purpose and willingness to serve as one of the three primary elements of the Organisation. Communication Techniques, which he considered to be written and oral language were deemed not only necessary to attain organisation purpose but also a potential problem area for the organisation. Figure 1: The Gangplank Model Barnard listed seven specific communication factors which are especially important in establishing and maintaining objective authority in an organisation. 1. The channels of communication should be definitely known. 2. There should be definite formal channel of communication to every member of an organisation. 3. The line of communication should be as direct and short as possible. 4. The complete formal line of communication should normally be used. 5. The person‘s serving as communication centers should be competent. 6. The line of communication should not be interrupted while the organisation is functioning 7. Every Communication should be authenticated. 1.5 DEFINITIONS OF COMMUNICATION Communication is the sum of all the things one person does when he wants to create understanding in the mind of another. It involves a systematic and continuous process of telling, listening and understanding. (Louis A Allen) Communication can be defined as the process through which two or more persons come to exchange ideas and understanding among themselves. Uttarakhand Open University 4 English Communcation BHMAECC-II The word Communication describes the process of conveying messages (facts, ideas, attitudes and opinions) from one person to another, so that they are understood. (M.W. Cumming) Communication is the process whereby speech, signs or actions transmit information from one person to another. This definition is concise and definitive but doesn‘t include all the aspects of communication. There are other definitions, which state that communication involves transmitting information from one party to another. This broader definition doesn‘t require that the receiving party obtain a full understanding of the message. Of course, communication is better when both parties understand... but it can still exist even without that component Communication is a process of transmitting and receiving verbal and non verbal messages that produce a response. The communication is considered effective when it achieves the desired reaction or response from the receiver, simply stated, communication is a two way process of exchanging ideas or information between human beings. Communication can be defined as the process through which two or more persons come to exchange ideas and understanding among them. Communication is the understanding, not of the visible but of the invisible and hidden. These hidden and symbolic elements embedded in the culture give meaning to the visible communication process. Equally, if not of more importance is the fact that communication is a personal process that involves the exchange of behaviours. Invansevich and Matteson noted that Communication among people does not depend on technology but rather on forces in people and their surroundings. It is a process that occurs within people. No matter the type or mechanism of communication, every instance of communication must have a message that is being transferred from sender to receiver. In order for communication to be successful, the sender and receiver must have some signs, words or signals in common with each other so the sent message can be understood. The ideal definition of communication is a 2-way interaction between two parties to transmit information and mutual understanding between themselves. The interchange of information from one party to another is best communicated when a discussion is available so the receiver can ask questions and receive answers to clarify the message There are at least three general types of communication goals: 1) Self Presentation Goals (who we are and how we want to be perceived), 2) Relational Goals (how we develop, maintain, and terminate relationships), 3) Instrumental Goals (how we manipulate others, gain compliance, manage interpersonal conflict, use and recognize interpersonal influence strategies (anchoring and contrast effects, reciprocity, commitment, liking, social proof, authority, and scarcity etc.) 1.6 MODELS OF COMMUNICATION The essence of "communication" is that it is a process -- an activity that serves to connect senders and receivers of messages through space and time. Although human beings tend to be interested primarily in the study of human Uttarakhand Open University 5 English Communcation BHMAECC-II communication, the process is present in all living things and, it can be argued, in all things. From this we may conclude that communication is a fundamental, universal process. It was Aristotle, in his Rhetoric who first gave the science a proper framework. He proposed a simplistic model for communication which had as its components, a sender, a receiver and a message. It formed the crux around which the later theories were based. Lasswell later added the concept of a channel, which was to be chosen by the sender. While the field of communication has changed considerably over the last thirty years, the models used in the introductory chapters of communication textbooks. Some of the important models which are used to explain the process of Communication are discussed in this chapter. 1.6.1 SHANNON'S MODEL OF THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS Shannon's (1948) model of the communication process is, in important ways, the beginning of the modern field. It provided, for the first time, a general model of the communication process that could be treated as the common ground of such diverse disciplines as journalism, rhetoric, linguistics, and speech and hearing sciences. Part of its success is due to its structuralist reduction of communication to a set of basic constituents that not only explain how communication happens, but why communication sometimes fails. Good timing played a role as well. The world was barely thirty years into the age of mass radio, had arguably fought a world war in its wake, and an even more powerful, television, was about to assert itself. It was time to create the field of communication as a unified discipline, and Shannon's model was as good an excuse as any. The model's enduring value is readily evident in introductory textbooks. It remains one of the first things most students learn about communication when they take an introductory communication class. Indeed, it is one of only a handful of theoretical statements about the communication process that can be found in introductory textbooks in both mass communication and interpersonal communication. Figure 2 Shannon's Model of the Communication Process Shannon's model, as shown in Figure 2, breaks the process of communication down into eight discrete components: Uttarakhand Open University 6 English Communcation BHMAECC-II 1. An information source. Presumably a person who creates a message. 2. The message, which is both sent by the information source and received by the destination. 3. A transmitter. For Shannon's immediate purpose a telephone instrument that captures an audio signal, converts it into an electronic signal, and amplifies it for transmission through the telephone network. Transmission is readily generalized within Shannon's information theory to encompass a wide range of transmitters. The simplest transmission system, that associated with face-to-face communication, has at least two layers of transmission. The first, the mouth (sound) and body (gesture), create and modulate a signal. The second layer, which might also be described as a channel, is built of the air (sound) and light (gesture) that enable the transmission of those signals from one person to another. A television broadcast would obviously include many more layers, with the addition of cameras and microphones, editing and filtering systems, a national signal distribution network (often satellite), and a local radio wave broadcast antenna. 4. The signal, which flows through a channel. There may be multiple parallel signals, as is the case in face-to-face interaction where sound and gesture involve different signal systems that depend on different channels and modes of transmission. There may be multiple serial signals, with sound and/or gesture turned into electronic signals, radio waves, or words and pictures in a book. 5. A carrier or channel, which is represented by the small unlabeled box in the middle of the model. The most commonly used channels include air, light, electricity, radio waves, paper, and postal systems. Note that there may be multiple channels associated with the multiple layers of transmission, as described above. 1. Noise, in the form of secondary signals that obscure or confuse the signal carried. Given Shannon's focus on telephone transmission, carriers, and reception, it should not be surprising that noise is restricted to noise that obscures or obliterates some portion of the signal within the channel. This is a fairly restrictive notion of noise, by current standards, and a somewhat misleading one. Today we have at least some media which are so noise free that compressed signals are constructed with an absolutely minimal amount information and little likelihood of signal loss. In the process, Shannon's solution to noise, redundancy, has been largely replaced by a minimally redundant solution: error detection and correction. Today we use noise more as a metaphor for problems associated with effective listening. 2. A receiver. In Shannon's conception, the receiving telephone instrument. In face to face communication a set of ears (sound) and eyes (gesture). In television, several layers of receiver, including an antenna and a television set. 3. A destination. Presumably a person who consumes and processes the message. Uttarakhand Open University 7 English Communcation BHMAECC-II 1.6.2 INTERMEDIARY MODELS OF THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS The intermediary model of communication is frequently depicted in introductory texts in mass communication, focuses on the important role that intermediaries often play in the communication process. There are, many intermediary roles associated with communication. Many of the intermediaries have the ability to decide what messages others see, the context in which they are seen, and when they see them. They often have the ability, moreover, to change messages or to prevent them from reaching an audience (destination). In extreme variations we refer to such gatekeepers as censors. Under the more normal conditions of mass media, in which publications choose some content in preference to other potential content based on an editorial policy, we refer to them as editors (most mass media), moderators (Internet discussion groups), reviewers (peer-reviewed publications), or aggregators (clipping services), among other titles. Delivery workers (a postal delivery worker, for instance) also act as intermediaries, and have the ability to act as gatekeepers, but are generally restricted from doing so as a matter of ethics and/or law. Figure 3 Intermediary Model 1.7 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS Communication is the process of passing information and understanding from one person to another. The communication process involves six basic elements: sender (encoder), message, channel, receiver (decoder), noise, and feedback. Supervisors can improve communication skills by becoming aware of these elements and how they contribute to successful communication. Communication can break down at any one of these elements. Out of the various models of Communication which have been discussed in the previous pages, the Interactive Model of communication is one of the most used, discussed and implemented model of Communication. The model of the Communication Process is depicted as follows: Uttarakhand Open University 8 English Communcation BHMAECC-II Figure 4 : The Communication Process Sender Encodes The sender initiates the communication process. When the sender has decided on a meaning, he or she encodes a message, and selects a channel for transmitting the message to a receiver. To encode is to put a message into words or images. The message is the information that the sender wants to transmit. The medium is the means of communication, such as print, mass, electrical, and digital. As a sender, the supervisor should define the purpose of the message, construct each message with the receiver in mind, select the best medium, time each transmission thoughtfully, and seek feedback. An external stimuli prompts the sender to send a message. This prompt may arrive in a number of ways: letter, email, fax etc. As the sender thinks of the ideas for the message, he also reacts to the various conditions in his external environment – physical surroundings, weather, noise, discomforts, cultural customs and others. Next, the internal stimuli have a complex influence on how the sender translates ideas into a message. When the sender encodes, his own world of experience, affects his choice of symbols – mental, physical, psychological, semantic. Attitudes, opinions, emotions, past experience, likes and Uttarakhand Open University 9 English Communcation BHMAECC-II dislikes, education, job status and communication skills may also influence the way the sender communicates the ideas. Also especially important are the perception of and consideration for the receiver‘s viewpoint, needs, skills, status, mental ability and experience. Sender-Encoder External environment Internal Stimuli (Experiences, Attitudes, Skills) Perception Idea Encoding Symbol Decisions Sending Mechanisms Figure 5 : Sender - Encoder Words can be verbal - written and spoken. Words are used to create pictures and stories (scenarios) are used to create involvement. Written communication should be used when the situation is formal, official, or long term; or when the situation affects several people in related ways. Interoffice memos are used for recording informal inquiries or replies. Letters are formal in tone and addressed to an individual. They are used for official notices, formally recorded statements, and lengthy communications. Reports are more impersonal and more formal than a letter. They are used to convey information, analyses, and recommendations. Written communications to groups include bulletin-board notices, posters, exhibits, displays, and audio and visual aids. Communication and the need to exchange information are no longer constrained by place and time. Email, voice mail, and facsimile have facilitated communications and the sharing of knowledge. Email is the computer transmission and storage of written messages. Voice mail is the transmission and storage of digitized spoken messages. Facsimile (fax) is the transmission of documents. Verbal or spoken communication includes informal staff meetings, planned conferences, and mass meetings. Voice and delivery are important. Informal talks are suitable for day-to-day liaison, directions, exchange or information, progress reviews, and the maintenance of effective interpersonal Uttarakhand Open University 10 English Communcation BHMAECC-II relations. Planned appointments are appropriate for regular appraisal review and recurring joint work sessions. Planning for an appointment includes preparing, bringing adequate information, and limiting interruptions. Telephone calls are used for quick checkups and for imparting or receiving information. Teams using information technology have access to information, share knowledge, and construct documents. Meetings take place electronically from multiple locations, saving the organization's resources in both the expenses of physically bringing people from different locations together, and the time lost by employees traveling. Teleconferencing is simultaneous group verbal exchanges. Videoconferencing is group verbal and visual exchanges. Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal messages include images, actions and behaviors used to communicate. Images include photographs, film, charts, tables, graphs, and video. Nonverbal behaviors include actions, body language, and active listening. Actions and body language include eye contact, gestures, facial expressions, posture, and appearance. The effective communicator maintains eye contact for four to five seconds before looking away. Gestures should be natural and well timed. Grooming and dress should be appropriate for the situation. Listening requires good eye contact, alert body posture, and the frequent use of verbal encouragement. The channel is the path a message follows from the sender to the receiver. Supervisors use downward channels to send messages to employees. Employees use upward channels to send messages to supervisors. Horizontal channels are used when communicating across departmental lines, with suppliers, or with customers. An informal channel is the grapevine. It exists outside the formal channels and is used by people to transmit casual, personal, and social interchanges at work. The grapevine consists of rumors, gossip, and truthful information. The supervisor should pay attention to the grapevine, but should not depend on it for accurate information. Receiver Decodes Information technology is revolutionizing the way organizational members communicate. Network systems, electronic links among an organization's computer hardware and software, enable members to communicate instantaneously, to retrieve and share information from anyplace, at anytime. The receiver is the person or group for whom the communication effort is intended. Noise is anything that interferes with the communication. Feedback ensures that mutual understanding has taken place in a communication. It is the transfer of information from the receiver back to the sender. The receiver decodes or makes out the meaning of the message. Thus, in the feedback loop, the receiver becomes the sender and the sender becomes the receiver. The receiver, as well as the sender are influenced by non verbal factors such as touch, taste and smell. All these factors demand interpretation, according to individual experiences. Uttarakhand Open University 11 English Communcation BHMAECC-II Receiver – Decoder External Environment Internal Stimuli (Experiences, Attitudes, Skills) Receptor Mechanism Perception Decoding Idea Interpretation Figure 6 – Receiver – Decoder CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-1 1. Define Communication? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 2. What factors affect the Sender – Encoder in sending the message? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ Uttarakhand Open University 12 English Communcation BHMAECC-II 3. What is Barnard‘s Contribution to Communication? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 1.8 FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION Communication has been considered to be the bottleneck of Management, where any management function is just not possible to take place without making use of Communication. P E R Planning F Orgainising O Staffing Manager R Directing Communication M Controlling A N C Figure 7: Communication Bottleneck E We can therefore say that Communication serves four major functions in an organisation, these are Control, Motivation, Emotional Expression and Information. Other than these Communication can also be said to fulfill the following functions in an organisation. - Instructive Function - Influence Function - Integration Function Uttarakhand Open University 13 English Communcation BHMAECC-II - Informing Function - Evaluation Function - Directing Function - Teaching Function - Image Projection Function - Interview Function 1.9 IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION Good communication has many advantages for a business: strong communication:  Motivates employees – helps them feel part of the business (see below)  Easier to control and coordinate business activity – prevents different parts of the business going in opposite directions  Makes successful decision making easier for managers– decisions are based on more complete and accurate information  Better communication with customers will increase sales  Improve relationships with suppliers and possibly lead to more reliable delivery Improves chances of obtaining finance – e.g. keeping the bank up-to-date about how the business is doing Communication is to an organisation what the nervous system is to the human body. Effective Communication will lead to the smooth working of any organisation. The following points illustrate the importance of Communication in Business - Smooth Working of a Business Firm - Basis of Managerial Function - Maximum Production and Minimum Cost - Prompt Decision and its Implementation - Building Human Relations - Job Satisfaction and Good Morale - Avoids Illusion - Contacts with external Parties. Figure 8: Business Time Spent on Communication Uttarakhand Open University 14 English Communcation BHMAECC-II The above given figure explains how much time an individual spends on various perspectives of communication. THE BASICS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNCIATION Seek to Clarify your ideas before you speak Examine the true purpose of each communication Consider the Total Physical and Human Setting Whenever you communicate Consult with others where appropriate, in planning your communication Be Mindful, while you communicate, of the overtones as well as the basic content of your message Take the The opportunity Basics when it arises, to Communication of Effective convey something of help to the receiver Follow up your communication 1.10 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION CommunicationCommunicate is key fortotomorrow as well as today any business success! Unless potential clients and customers areBeaware sure your of actions support your your business, communication they will not haveSeek the information to contact not only to understand you but to communicate. Be a good Listener or to purchase your products. When they are aware of your business, they must be able to contact it easily. Two types of communication are essential - external and internal. - External communication reaches out to the customer to make them aware of your product or service and to give them a reason to buy. This type of communication includes your brochures, various forms of advertising, contact letters, telephone calls, web sites and anything else that makes the public aware of what you do. Image is extremely important in external communication! Your logo should represent who you are; your letterhead should be a selling tool; your telephone message should reflect your professionalism. External Communication comprises of Formal contacts with outsiders as well as some informal contacts with outsiders. - Internal communication is essential to attracting and retaining a talented staff. You must provide the direction for the company by consistently communicating that message; you must motivate your staff through various forms of communication, which can include awards, newsletters, meetings, telephone calls and formal and informal discussions. The internal communication is further subdivided into two parts, Formal Communication channel and Informal Uttarakhand Open University 15 English Communcation BHMAECC-II Communication Channel. The formal communication network is the official structure of an organisation, which is typically shown as an organisation chart. Information may travel up or down, up or across an organisation hierarchy. But, when managers depend too heavily on formal channels for communicating, they risk encountering ‗distortion‘ or misunderstanding. The Informal Communication network in an organisation is basically the grapevine in the organisation. As people go about their work, they have casual conversations with their friends in the office. And this comprises the informal communication channels. Sometimes these informal channels are more strong and effective than the formal communication networks. They also turn out to be speedier than many formal channels of communication. Effective communication requires tools and planning. In this session, we will discuss those tools, as well as planning guidelines, to facilitate that key element of your business - communication. The Basic Forms of Communication Forms of Communication Non Verbal Verbal Communication Communication Kinesics Written Communication Proxemics Para Language Spoken Communication Time Language Forms of Communication Communication can broadly be divided into two parts, Non Verbal Communication and Verbal Communication. Uttarakhand Open University 16 English Communcation BHMAECC-II CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-2 Answer the following questions. 1. What are the various forms of Communication? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 2. What is the importance of Communication? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 3. What are the functions of Communication? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ Uttarakhand Open University 17 English Communcation BHMAECC-II 1.11 SUMMARY Communication establishes relationships and makes organizing possible. Every message has a purpose or objective. The sender intends -- whether consciously or unconsciously -- to accomplish something by communicating. Communication is the process by which a message or information is exchanged from a sender to a receiver. Effective communication is all about conveying your messages to other people clearly and unambiguously. It's also about receiving information that others are sending to you, with as little distortion as possible. Among the pioneers of Communication Studies Fayol and Barnard‘s names are important. Communication has been considered to be the bottleneck of Management, where any management function is just not possible to take place without making use of Communication. 1.12 GLOSSARY Channel : the imparting or interchange of thoughts, opinions, or information by speech, writing, or signs. Communication: the imparting or interchange of thoughts, opinions, or information by speech, writing, or signs. Formal : made or done in accordance with procedures that ensure validity Grapevine : a person-to-person method of spreading rumors, gossip, information, etc., by informal or unofficial conversation, letter writing, or the like. Informal : not according to the prescribed, official, or customary way or manner; irregular; unofficial Intermediary : an intermediate agent or agency; a go-between or mediator. Transmitter : a person or thing that transmits. 1.13 BIBLIOGRAPHY  Kaul, Asha Business Communication, PHI New Delhi 1999  Raymond V. Lesiker & John D. Pettit, ‗Business Communication - Theory and Application, AITBS Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi 1996  Treece Malra, ‗ Successful Business Communications‘, Allyn & Bacon, Boston Uttarakhand Open University 18 English Communcation BHMAECC-II 1.13 SUGGESTED READING  Murphy & Hildebrandt, ‗ Effective Business Communications‖, Mc Graw Hill, New York  Thill, John V., Bovee , Courtland L., ―Excellence in Business Communication‖. Mc Graw Hill, Inc. New York. 1996 (Third Edition) 1.14 TERMINAL QUESTIONS 1. Define Communication. What are the functions of Communication? 2. Write a note on the Historical background of Communication. 3. Discuss Shannon‘s Model of Communication process 4. Discuss the Intermediary model of Communication Process 5. Discuss in detail the functions of Communication 6. What are the basics of Effective Communication? 7. Write a detailed note on the various types of Communication Uttarakhand Open University 19 English Communcation BHMAECC-II UNIT: 2 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS, DIRECTIONS OF COMMUNICATION, TYPES OF COMMUNICATION Structure 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Objectives 2.3 Definition of Communication 2.3 Characteristics of Communication 2.5 Communication Networks 2.5.1 Formal Communication Network 2.5.2 Informal Communication Network 2.6 Directions of Communication 2.6.1 Downward Communication 2.6.2 Upward Communication 2.6.3 Horizontal Communication 2.6.4 Diagonal Communication 2.7 Types of Communication 2.7.1 Verbal Communication 2.7.2 Non-Verbal Communication 2.8 Glossary 2.9 Answers to check your progress 2.10 References 2.1 INTRODUCTION Communication is the life blood of any organization and its main purpose is to effect change to influence action. In any organization the main problem is of maintaining effective communication process. The management problem generally results in poor communication. Serious mistakes are made because orders are misunderstood. The basic problem in communication is that the meaning which is actually understood may not be what the other intended to send. It must be realised that the speaker and the listener are two separate individuals having their own limitations and number of things may happen to distort the message that pass between them. When people within the organization communicate with each other, it is internal communication. They do so to work as a team and realise the common goals. It could be official or unofficial. Modes of internal communication include face-to-face and written communication. Memos, reports, office order, circular, fax, video conferencing, meeting etc. are the examples of internal communication. When people in the organization communicate with anyone outside the organization it is called external Uttarakhand Open University 20 English Communcation BHMAECC-II communication. These people may be clients or customers, dealers or distributors, media, government, general public etc. are the examples of external communication. 2.2 OBJECTIVES: After completing this unit you will be able:  To understand network of communication  To understand flow of communication in business organization  To differentiate types of communication  To know the importance of Verbal and Non Verbal Communication 2.3 DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION: Communication in simple terms is a transfer of information between people, resulting in common understanding between them. Communication has been defined differently by different writers and behavioral theorists. Some popular definitions are –  According to Newman and summer, ―Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more persons.‖  According to Allen Louis, ―It is the sum of all the things one person does when he wants to create an understanding in the mind of another.‖  Bellows, Gilson and Odirone define communication as ― A communion by words, letters, symbols or messages, and as a way that one organization member shares meaning with the other.‖  Hoben defines communication as ― The verbal interchange of thoughts or ideas.‖  In the words of Anderson, ―Communication is the process by which we understand others and in turn endeavor to be understood by them. It is dynamic, constantly changing and shifting in response to the total situation.‖  According to Berelson and Steiner, communication is ―the transmission of information, ideas, emotions, skills, etc., by the use of symbols, words, pictures, figures, graphs, etc.‖ It is the act or process of transmission that is usually called communication.‖  In the words of Fotheringham, ―Communication is a process involving the selection, production and transmission of signs in such a way as to help a receiver perceive a meaning similar to that in the mind of the communicator.‖ 2.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNICATION Communication has the following characteristics –  It is Unavoidable – It is impossible to not communicate, since we communicate unintentionally all the time, even without the use of words. Uttarakhand Open University 21 English Communcation BHMAECC-II Our body language, the way we dress, the importance we give to arriving on time, our behavior and the physical environment in which we work, all convey certain messages to others.  It is a Two-way Exchange of Information – Communication is sharing of information between two or more persons, with continuous feedback.  It is a Process – Each message is part of a process and does not occur in isolation. This means that the meaning attached to a message depends on what has happened before and on the present context. For example, your boss‘s response to your request for a promotion will depend on your past relationship with him, as well as his mood at that particular moment.  It involves a Sender and a Receiver of Information – Any communication starts with a sender of a message and requires a receiver to attach some meaning to that message.  It could be Verbal or Non-verbal – Communication could be through the use of words in spoken or written form, or through the use of body language such as gestures and facial expressions. It is successful when the Receiver Interprets the Meaning in the Same Way as that intended by the Sender. The receiver does not always attach the same meaning to a message as the sender. When the message is wrongly interpreted, the communication is a failure. This may be due to several reasons, which we will examine later in this unit. 2.5 COMMUNICATION NETWORK A communication network refers to how information flows within the organization. Information within an organization generally flows through a system, rather than being a free flow. In the words of Adler, ―Communication networks are regular patterns of person-to-person relationships through which information flows in an organization.‖ This means that the flow of information is managed, regulated and structured. Communication networks may be formal or informal. We will deal with each of these in some detail. 2.5.1 FORMAL COMMUNICATION NETWORK – A formal communication network is one which is created by management and described with the help of an organizational chart. An organizational chart specifies the hierarchy and the reporting system in the organization. Therefore, in a formal network, information is passed on only through official channels such as memos, bulletins and intranet (email within the organization). The organizational chart implies that information can flow in any of three directions – vertically, i.e., upward or downward, and horizontally. Uttarakhand Open University 22 English Communcation BHMAECC-II 2.5.2 INFORMAL COMMUNICATION NETWORK – Another name for informal networks is the ―grapevine‖. In this type of network, information does not flow in a particular direction, as we have seen with formal networks. The information is also not passed on through official channels such as memos, notices or bulletin boards. The information need not be circulated within the organization, but could be passed on outside the work environment, wherever co-workers or colleagues meet socially. Thus, informal networks are based more on friendship, shared personal or career interests. Example – Co-workers may meet outside the work environment at a company picnic, party or a car pool and discuss areas of common interest that may or may Uttarakhand Open University 23 English Communcation BHMAECC-II not be work related. Information may then be passed on to each other about happenings in the company, such as layoffs, the company‘s plans for acquisitions and so on. This type of informal network is not just for idle rumors and may be useful in many ways. First of all, it sometimes fills in the ―transparency gaps‖ left by formal networks. Such gaps usually occur during times of crisis such as strikes or layoffs. The strikes and layoffs may not be officially announced. Secondly, it may help to confirm important information, such as the fact that the company is going in for a major acquisition. Thirdly, the grapevine can be used for a constructive purpose by the organization. Example – The government could get the press to publish news in the local paper that there is going to be a petrol price hike soon, just to test the reactions of the general public. If the reaction is negative, then the news may be withdrawn on the basis that it is just a rumor. Similarly, organizations could deliberately plant proposals in the minds of their employees, just to test their reactions. Given that informal communication networks have their advantages, they should not be suppressed as rumors. On the contrary, competent managers should accept the informal network. At the same time, they should make efforts to counter false rumors and to ensure transparency through the formal network. This means making all types of information - both positive and negative, available to everyone in the organization through official channels.Networks are another aspect of direction and flow of communication. Bavelas has shown that communication patterns, or networks, influence groups in several important ways. Communication networks may affect the group's completion of the assigned task on time, the position of the de facto leader in the group, or they may affect the group members' satisfaction from occupying certain positions in the network. Although these findings are based on laboratory experiments, they have important implications for the dynamics of communication in formal organizations. There are several patterns of communication:  "Chain",  "Wheel",  "Star",  "All-Channel" network,  "Circle" Uttarakhand Open University 24 English Communcation BHMAECC-II The Chain can readily be seen to represent the hierarchical pattern that characterizes strictly formal information flow, "from the top down," in military and some types of business organizations. The Wheel can be compared with a typical autocratic organization, meaning one-man rule and limited employee participation. The Star is similar to the basic formal structure of many organizations. The All-Channel network, which is an elaboration of Bavelas's Circle used by Guetzkow, is analogous to the free-flow of communication in a group that encourages all of its members to become involved in group decision processes. The All-Channel network may also be compared to some of the informal communication networks. If it's assumed that messages may move in both directions between stations in the networks, it is easy to see that some individuals occupy key positions with regard to the number of messages they handle and the degree to which they exercise control over the flow of information. For example, the person represented by the central dot in the "Star" handles all messages in the group. In contrast, individuals who occupy stations at the edges of the pattern handle fewer messages and have little or no control over the flow of information.These "peripheral" individuals can communicate with only one or two other persons and must depend entirely on others to relay their messages if they wish to extend their range. In reporting the results of experiments involving the Circle, Wheel, and Star configurations, Bavelas came to the following tentative conclusions. In patterns with positions located centrally, such as the Wheel and the Star, an organization quickly develops around the people occupying these central positions. In such patterns, the organization is more stable and errors in performance are lower than Uttarakhand Open University 25 English Communcation BHMAECC-II in patterns having a lower degree of centrality, such as the Circle. However, he also found that the morale of members in high centrality patterns is relatively low. Bavelas speculated that this lower morale could, in the long run, lower the accuracy and speed of such networks. In problem solving requiring the pooling of data and judgments, or "insight," Bavelas suggested that the ability to evaluate partial results, to look at alternatives, and to restructure problems fell off rapidly when one person was able to assume a more central (that is, more controlling) position in the information flow. For example, insight into a problem requiring change would be less in the Wheel and the Star than in the Circle or the Chain because of the "bottlenecking" effect of data control by central members. It may be concluded from these laboratory results that the structure of communications within an organization will have a significant influence on the accuracy of decisions, the speed with which they can be reached, and the satisfaction of the people involved. Consequently, in networks in which the responsibility for initiating and passing along messages is shared more evenly among the members, the better the group's morale in the long run. 2.6 DIRECTIONS OF COMMUNICATION: Communication can be either vertical or downward when considering the flow. Communication that moves in both directions – upwards and downwards is termed as Vertical Communication and communication that moves in lateral direction is termed as Horizontal Communication. Communication can be classified as follows:  Downward Communication  Upward Communication  Horizontal Communication  Diagonal Communication Uttarakhand Open University 26 English Communcation BHMAECC-II 2.6.1 DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION – Downward communication is the information that is exchanged between a manager and a subordinate in other words from top level to low level. In the best of cases, the information is clear and direct. The purpose of such communication is to inform about policies, procedures, programmes and objectives and to issue orders and instructions to the subordinates. The information is sent through verbal or written orders. The objectives of Downward Communication are:  To train subordinates in performing the job.  To motivate employees to improve their performance.  To know how effectively a person is performing his job.  To explain organisational policies, programmes and procedures.  To give instructions about what to do and how to do.  To highlight the areas of attention Merits of Downward Communication are:  Job Satisfaction – The management communicates the employees about their better performance in the organization because of which the employees feel motivated.  Duty and Authority – By assigning duties and giving authority to the employees it becomes clear as to what is expected of them and how much authority is vested in them. Uttarakhand Open University 27 English Communcation BHMAECC-II  Plans and Policies – Through downward communication the employees are informed about the organisational plans and policies.  Mission and Goals – Employees are informed about the mission and goals of the orgnisation and how they can be an asset by contributing to accomplish the goals. Demerits of Downward Communication are:  Distortion - In the long line of downward communication, information is very likely to be distorted because of fabrication during interpretation as made by the subordinates. Information to pass through the long chain of command is supposed to lose its originality at every level.  Time Consuming - The line of communication is the downward communication is very long. It takes too much time to transmit the information to the lowest level of management. When information reaches the destination, it is too late & the communication loses it significance.  Reduction of Efficiency - Efficiency is increased when there is a cordial or communicative environment. But downward communication is generally commanding in nature which is against the rules of effective communication. So workers or employees do not get the opportunity to become efficient.  Incomplete Information – Sometimes managers do not communicate the complete information to the team members because they want the team members to be dependent on them. However, managers do not realize that without complete information the team members will not be able to carry out the tasks efficiently. 2.6.2 Upward Communication – It is non directive in nature. Effective upward communication is possible only when organizations empower their employees and allow them to participate freely in decision making. Through this type of communication employees can communicate information to their superiors freely and can voice their opinion. Methods of Making Upward Communication More Effective  Grievance Redressal Procedure – It enables employees to bring forward their work related issues to the notice of the top management and seek immediate assistance. General Electric and Federal Express have set up peer review boards where the arguments of both parties are heard and a decision is arrived at.  Open Door Policy – Under this policy employees are free to approach managers at any time and discuss their problems with them.  Counseling, Attitude Questionnaires, Exit Interviews – The personnel department conducts non directive counseling sessions to help employees deal with their work related issues also, questionnaires may be administered periodically to find out about employees attitude towards Uttarakhand Open University 28 English Communcation BHMAECC-II work. Exit interviews are held for finding out the reason for leaving and for giving suggestions for improving the workplace.  The Ombudsperson – Through an ombudsperson the employees can have their problems resolved quickly without going through lengthy channels. 2.6.3 Horizontal Communication – Horizontal communication is necessary to develop a collaborative and proactive culture in an organisation. People communicate with others at their own level, in their own departments or other departments, to solve problems and to share experiences. Devices such as problem clinics and task forces are used for this purpose. A problem clinic is conducted by people concerned with a problem to diagnose and generate alternative solutions. A task force is constituted of persons from different departments or different sections to work on a given problem and make necessary recommendations to solve the problem. Horizontal communication involves not only the movement of information from the upper levels to the lower levels of the organizational hierarchy but also is defined primarily as the quality of information sharing among peers at similar levels. The main objectives of horizontal communication are developing teamwork, and promoting group coordination within an organization. It takes place between professional peer groups or people working on the same level of hierarchy. Horizontal communication is less formal and structured than both downward communication and upward communication, and may be carried out through informal discussions, management gossip, telephone calls, teleconferencing, videoconferencing, memos, routine meetings and so on. 2.6.4 VERTICAL COMMUNICATION – Vertical communication occurs between various hierarchies. It maybe upward or downward. For example manager to employee, general manager to managers, foreman to machine operator, head of the department to cashiers, etc. Downward communication is more prevalent than upward communication. It is suggested that downward communication is most effective if top managers communicate directly with immediate supervisors and immediate supervisors communicate with their staff. The major purposes of downward communication are to advise, inform, direct, instruct, and evaluate employees and to provide organization members with information about organizational goals and policies. Uttarakhand Open University 29 English Communcation BHMAECC-II 2.7 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION: Communication may be divided into two areas – verbal and non-verbal communication.Verbal communication, or communication through words, provides the opportunity for personal contact and two-way flow of information. A large part of our communication, whether at work or outside, is verbal in nature. Verbal communication in turn, may be divided into two areas – oral and written communication.Oral communication may be defined as a process whereby a speaker interacts verbally with one or more listeners, in order to influence the latter‘s behavior in some way or the other.Oral communication in a business context can take the form of meetings, presentations, one-to-one meetings, performance reviews and so on.Written communication is a process whereby a writer interacts verbally with a receiver, in order to influence the latter‘s behavior. Written communication at the workplace can take several forms such as letters, memos, circulars, notices, reports and email. We will examine some of these in more detail in later chapters. Non-verbal communication, on the other hand may be defined as communication without words. It refers to any way of conveying meanings without the use of verbal language. The game of ―dumb charades‖ is a perfect example. Non-verbal communication is generally unintentional, unlike verbal communication. All of us tend to communicate silently and unknowingly send signals and messages by what we do, apart from what we say. Gestures, facial expressions, posture and the way we dress, are all part of non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication can have a greater impact than verbal communication, since ―how you say something‖ is sometimes more important than ―what you say.‖ Although non-verbal communication can affect both our personal and business relationships, it is particularly important in the workplace. 2.7.1 Verbal Communication We communicate most of our ideas to others through verbal messages, i.e., through spoken or written messages. However, verbal messages have some drawbacks – the message may not be properly worded, or the message may be misunderstood, or interpreted differently from its intended meaning. Uttarakhand Open University 30 English Communcation BHMAECC-II Avoid Words with Multiple Meanings: Words sometimes tend to have different meanings in different cultures. Therefore, when communicating verbally, it is important to use words that are precise, unambiguous and have a single accepted meaning. Ensure Clarity through Highly Specific Statements: Instead of describing an object or idea in general terms or in abstract language, use highly specific language to avoid a variety of interpretations. Avoid overuse of Jargon: Jargon refers to technical terms or specialized vocabulary. Every profession has its own jargon which only experts in that field can understand. For example, IT experts use terms like ―computer architecture‖ which the layperson may not understand. The use of jargon depends on the audience with whom you are communicating. A certain amount of jargon may be permissible when writing a technical report for example, but should be avoided when communicating with a general audience, since the terms may not be understood. Above all, never use jargon just to impress your audience. Avoid Biased Language and Offensive Words: Language has the power to arouse negative feelings, if it is not used with care. This can happen when the words used seem to be objective, but actually contain an intentional or unintentional bias. For example, referring to a co-worker as ―wishy washy‖ if he is not quick in making a decision, could lead to misunderstanding and conflict. Similarly, certain words may have a ―sexist‖ connotation and be taken in an offensive way – for example, referring to a lady receptionist as ―that female.‖ 2.7.2 NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION Non-verbal communication can be defined as communication done without speaking or writing. Let us now take a look at some of its characteristics, which distinguish it from verbal communication. * Non-verbal Communication Cannot Be Avoided – While one can avoid verbal communication by refusing to speak or write, it is not possible to do the same with non-verbal communication. That is because non-verbal communication is not always intentional, unlike verbal messages, as pointed out earlier. Sometimes, silence itself may convey a lot of meaning. Example – A speaker making a presentation may find that the audience is not very interactive. Instead he notices people yawning during his presentation. At the end of the session, when he asks for some feedback, there is total silence.The message conveyed in the above example is that the audience is bored with the session. The silence indicates that they have not listened to the session and that the feedback is negative. Uttarakhand Open University 31 English Communcation BHMAECC-II * Non-verbal Communication is Powerful – Non-verbal communication helps us to form first impressions and make judgments of others. First impressions generally tend to be lasting impressions. Let us say you go for a job interview fifteen minutes late and dressed in informal attire. When asked some questions, you avoid eye contact. This immediately reflects on your attitude and the impression formed of you is that of a person who takes things casually, is insecure and lacks knowledge. * Non-verbal Communication is Ambiguous – While precise words can be used in verbal communication to ensure that that the message is clearly understood, non-verbal communication is not always clear and easy to understand. For example, sitting back in a relaxed posture may be a signal of boredom or fatigue. Similarly, avoiding eye contact with your audience could mean that either you are nervous or guilty of something! Therefore it is not possible to accurately understand the messages conveyed by non-verbal behavior. * Non-verbal Communication Cannot Express All Messages – Non-verbal behavior can only express a person‘s feelings, attitudes, level of interest, liking or dislike for something. Certain messages about ideas or concepts can only be expressed through the spoken or written word. Consider the following , example- A sales manager wanting to report that sales for the current year has exceeded targets, can only do so through a written report or oral presentation. If he is making an oral presentation, his non-verbal behavior can only indicate how pleased he is about the increase in sales. *Non-verbal Communication Varies Across Cultures – While certain types of non-verbal behavior are universal, others may be different in different cultures. Examples – There are different rules regarding the appropriateness of the handshake in oriental and western cultures. Generally, in oriental cultures like India, any form of physical contact is not common and is interpreted as being intimate, while it is an accepted thing in western countries. Similarly, a nod of the head means yes in some cultures and no in other cultures.In this age of business communication across cultures, it is important for you to understand these differences, especially when doing business overseas. Failure to do this could lead to costly blunders. Classification of Non-verbal Communication: We have seen how non-verbal communication plays an important role in business communication. Given its importance, an understanding of the different types of non-verbal communication is essential. There is a common misconception that non-verbal communication is synonymous with body language and includes only body language. The fact is that it is a vast area which has been widely researched and includes several aspects. The table below lists the different types of non- verbal communication, with the corresponding communication terminology. Uttarakhand Open University 32 English Communcation BHMAECC-II 1. Kinesics – This is the most often studied and important area of non-verbal communication and refers to body movements of any kind. Different body movements can express inner states of emotion. Facial Expressions can convey feelings of surprise, happiness, anger and sadness. If you meet a long lost friend and say ― I‘m very happy to meet you again‖, but with a sad facial expression, it conveys the exact opposite meaning. Eye Movements, such as wide open pupils express feelings of surprise, excitement or even fear. The importance of eye contact with one‘s audience was pointed out earlier. Direct eye contact is an indication of intensity and interest, while lack of it can convey feelings of nervousness and guilt.Gestures, such as movement of the hands while giving a lecture or presentation indicates a high level of involvement in what you are saying. On the other hand, shuffling of the feet is a sign of nervousness and speaking with one‘s hands in one‘s pockets is considered to be casual or even rude. Head Movements like nodding the head can convey interest, appreciation, agreement or understanding. Body Shape and Posture – Body shape is not within one‘s control but can be stereotyped to convey certain meanings. For example, someone who is strong and muscular is generally thought to be athletic, as opposed to a person who is short and fat! Posture on the other hand is within our control. In formal settings such as job interviews or classroom settings, it is essential that you maintain an erect posture to convey that you are attentive, since slouching or a relaxed posture conveys a casual attitude. Physical Appearance – Our outward appearance, including the way we dress and the jewelry and make-up that we wear can convey an impression of formality or informality. Going to a job interview dressed in blue jeans or not sticking to a stipulated dress code at the workplace can convey that you are a rebel, non- conformist or a very casual person. Uttarakhand Open University 33 English Communcation BHMAECC-II Therefore, it is important to take care of your appearance, so that you convey the right meaning to others. 1. Proxemics – Proxemics is derived from the word ―proximity‖ or closeness and is the communication term for personal space and distance. The space and distance which we choose to keep from people is also part of non- verbal communication. Each of us has our own inner and outer circles, which differ for different people. 2. Our inner most circle is an ―intimate space‖, into which we generally admit only select people such as family and close friends. Next comes a ―personal space‖ which might include other friends and colleagues or coworkers. These two spaces involve communication of an informal nature.Most of us also have a ―social and public‖ space, which includes official or workplace relationships, where the communication is of a more formal nature.In a business context, it is more relevant to understand the concept of ―fixed space‖ and ―semi-fixed‖ space. Uttarakhand Open University 34 English Communcation BHMAECC-II Fixed space means that the physical features of the work environment such as furniture, room size and seating arrangement are permanent. This conveys an impression of formality. On the other hand, semi-fixed space means that certain elements of the environment can be changed – for example, the seating arrangement could be changed and this conveys an impression of informality.Sometimes, use of space at the workplace can determine leadership positions. For example, seating at the head of the table conveys leadership or authority. A round table meeting, however, conveys the idea of equality, since no one can be seated at the head of the table! All points of a circle are the same. That is why when heads of state meet (as in UN Security Council meetings), it is always a round table discussion, since all heads are equal.Space should therefore be used carefully in a work environment, so as to convey the right impressions. 3. Time Language – This refers to the meaning or importance attached to time and varies between different people. One person may value time more than another. Similarly, time language also varies across cultures. In most western cultures for example, punctuality is considered to be important. Arriving late for a business meeting is inexcusable. In other cultures, it is more relaxed and time is not given that much importance. We convey messages to others through the time we spend on a work related activity or by the importance that we give to time. Arriving early at work or for a job interview shows interest, involvement and seriousness. Spending time with an employee and giving him suggestions on how to improve his performance shows interest and involvement in his career growth. 4. Paralanguage – Para means ―like‖ or ―similar to‖, therefore paralanguage means ―like language‖. Of all the forms of non-verbal communication, paralanguage is closest to verbal communication. It refers to the tone of voice with which something is said. In other words, it is ―how‖ something is said, and not ―what‖ is said. The tone of voice includes the pitch (high or low pitch), the pace (slow or fast) the emphasis on words and the volume (soft or loud) and can convey different moods and emotions, as mentioned earlier in this unit. Example: The statement ―I practice good business communication‖ can be understood in different ways, depending on the emphasis on certain words. Saying ―I practice good business communication‖ means that I alone practice it above anyone else. On the other hand, saying ―I practice good business communication‖ could be interpreted to mean that you communicate particularly well in a business context, rather than in a general context. The important point to keep in mind regarding tone of voice is to avoid mixed signals – that is, making sure that what you say is consistent with how you say it. 5. Physical Context – This refers to the physical environment or surroundings within which we communicate and includes two aspects – 1) Color and layout Uttarakhand Open University 35 English Communcation BHMAECC-II 2) Design. Colors are known for their symbolic meaning and have associations with different feelings. For example, colors like black and grey are associated with death, mourning and negative feelings. Yellow and green are associated with more positive feelings. Of course, these can also vary across cultures. The point to remember is that you can make the right impressions with use of the right colors. Layout in a work environment refers to the size of an office, or the arrangement of furniture. Design refers to the type of chairs, desks or carpeting. All these can convey status, formality or informality. We have seen how the types of non-verbal communication outnumber the types of verbal communication. Non-verbal communication is an important supplement to verbal communication and can enhance verbal communication, if used in a positive way. The sender should use the right non-verbal cues to convey a positive message, while the receiver should learn to look for unintended messages conveyed by non-verbal communication. 2.8 GLOSSARY  Downward Communication: Downward communication is the information that is exchanged between a manager and a subordinate in other words from top level to low level.  Formal Communication Network: A formal communication network is one which is created by management and described with the help of an organizational chart.  Horizontal Communication: Communication between employees at the same level in their own departments or other departments, to solve problems and to share experiences is called Horizontal Communication.  Informal Communication Network: In this type of network, information does not flow in a particular direction, as we have seen with formal networks. The information is also not passed on through official channels such as memos, notices or bulletin boards. The information need not be circulated within the organization, but could be passed on outside the work environment, wherever co-workers or colleagues meet socially. Thus, informal networks are based more on friendship, shared personal or career interests.  Non-Verbal Communication: Non-verbal communication can be defined as communication done without speaking or writing. It involves various types of body gestures and postures.  Upward Communication: It is non directive in nature. Effective upward communication is possible only when organizations empower their employees and allow them to participate freely in decision making. Through this type of communication employees can communicate information to their superiors freely and can voice their opinion. Uttarakhand Open University 36 English Communcation BHMAECC-II  Verbal Communication: Communication done through spoken words is called verbal communication  Vertical communication: Vertical communication occurs between various hierarchies. It maybe upward or downward. For example manager to employee, general manager to managers, foreman to machine operator, head of the department to cashiers, etc. 2.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1. Define Communication 2. Define Communication Network 3. Explain the Characteristics of Communication 4. Explain Formal Communication Network 5. Explain Informal Communication Network 6. Explain the flow of Communication in the business organisations. 7. Explain the various types of communication in detail. 2.10 REFERENCES  Willhelm Wundt, The Language of Gestures, 1921  Charles Darwin, The Expressions of the Emotions in Man and Animals, 1872, Murray  Edward Twitchell Hall, The Silent Language, 1959, Doubleday  E T Hall, Proxemics - A Study of Man's Spatial Relationship, 1963, International Universities Press  E T Hall, The Hidden Dimension, 1966, Doubleday  J S Bruner and R Taquiri, The Perception of People, 1954, Handbook of Social Psychology, Addison Wesley  Robert Ardrey, The Territorial Imperative, 1966, Dell  Desmond Morris, The Naked Ape, 1967, Cape  Julius Fast, Body Language, 1971, Pan  D Hartland and C Tosh, Guide to Body Language, 2001, Caxton  P Ekman, E R Sorenson and W V Friesen, Pan-Cultural Elements in Facial Displays of Emotion, Science Vol 164, No 3875, 4 Apr 1969  C Boyes, Need to Know Body Language, 2005, Harper Collins  E Kuhnke, Body Language for Dummies, 2007, Wiley Uttarakhand Open University 37 English Communcation BHMAECC-II UNIT: 3 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ORAL AND WRITTEN COMMUNICATION, DIRECTIONS OF COMMUNICATION, BARRIERS AND GATEWAYS TO COMMUNICATION Structure 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Objectives 3.3 Oral Communication 3.3.1 Meaning of Oral Communication 3.3.2 Advantages of Oral Communication 3.3.3 Limitations of Oral Communication 3.4 Written Communication 3.4.1 Meaning of Oral Communication 3.4.2 Advantages of Oral Communication 3.4.3 Limitations of Oral Communication 3.5 Difference between Oral Communication and Written Communication 3.6 Directions of Communication 3.6.1 Downward Communication 3.6.2 Upward Communication 3.6.3 Horizontal Communication 3.6.4 Diagonal Communication 3.7 Barrier and Gateway to Communication 3.8 Glossary 3.9 Answers to check your progress 3.10 References 3.1 INTRODUCTION The word ―communication‖ derived from the Latin word ‗communicare‘ that means to impart, to participate, to share or to make common. It is a process of exchange of facts, ideas, and opinions and as a means that individual or organization share meaning and understanding with one another. In other words, it is a transmission and interacting the facts, ideas, opinion, feeling and attitudes. It is the ability of mankind to communicate across barriers and beyond boundaries that has ushered the progress of mankind. It is the ability of fostering speedy and effective communication around the world that has shrunk the world and made Uttarakhand Open University 38 English Communcation BHMAECC-II ‗globalization‘ a reality. Communication had a vital role to play in ensuring that people belonging to a particular country or a culture or linguistic group interact with and relate to people belonging to other countries or culture or linguistic group. Communication adds meaning to human life. It helps to build relationship and fosters love and understanding. It enriches our knowledge of the universe and makes living worthwhile. 3.2 OBJECTIVES: Objective of this unit is to impart knowledge of: 1. Oral and written communication 2. Flow of communication between the various levels of employees within and outside the organization in a business entity. 3. Various obstacles or barriers that come across in the communication 3.3.1 ORAL COMMUNICATION - MEANING Oral communication implies communication through mouth. It includes individuals conversing with each other, be it direct conversation or telephonic conversation. Speeches, presentations, discussions are all forms of oral communication. Oral communication is generally recommended when the communication matter is of temporary kind or where a direct interaction is required. Face to face communication (meetings, lectures, conferences, interviews, etc.) is significant so as to build a rapport and trust. 3.3.2 ADVANTAGES OF ORAL COMMUNICATION  There is high level of understanding and transparency in oral communication as it is interpersonal.  There is no element of rigidity in oral communication. There is flexibility for allowing changes in the decisions previously taken.  The feedback is spontaneous in case of oral communication. Thus, decisions can be made quickly without any delay.  Oral communication is not only time saving, but it also saves upon money and efforts.  Oral communication is best in case of problem resolution. The conflicts, disputes and many issues/differences can be put to an end by talking them over.  Oral communication is an essential for teamwork and group energy.  Oral communication promotes a receptive and encouraging morale among organizational employees.  Oral communication can be best used to transfer private and confidential information/matter Uttarakhand Open University 39 English Communcation BHMAECC-II 3.3.3 DISADVANTAGES /LIMITATIONS OF ORAL COMMUNICATION  Relying only on oral communication may not be sufficient as business communication is formal and very organized.  Oral communication is less authentic than written communication as they are informal and not as organized as written communication.  Oral communication is time-saving as far as daily interactions are concerned, but in case of meetings, long speeches consume lot of time and are unproductive at times.  Oral communications are not easy to maintain and thus they are unsteady.  There may be misunderstandings as the information is not complete and may lack essentials.  It requires attentiveness and great receptivity on part of the receivers/audience.  Oral communication (such as speeches) is not frequently used as legal records except in investigation work. 3.4.1 WRITTEN COMMUNICATION - MEANING Written communication has great significance in today‘s business world. It is an innovative activity of the mind. Effective written communication is essential for preparing worthy promotional materials for business development. Speech came before writing. But writing is more unique and formal than speech. Effective writing involves careful choice of words, their organization in correct order in sentences formation as well as cohesive composition of sentences. Also, writing is more valid and reliable than speech. But while speech is spontaneous, writing causes delay and takes time as feedback is not immediate. 3.4.2 ADVANTAGES OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION  Written communication helps in laying down apparent principles, policies and rules for running of an organization.  It is a permanent means of communication. Thus, it is useful where record maintenance is required.  It assists in proper delegation of responsibilities. While in case of oral communication, it is impossible to fix and delegate responsibilities on the grounds of speech as it can be taken back by the speaker or he may refuse to acknowledge.  Written communication is more precise and explicit.  Effective written communication develops and enhances an organization‘s image.  It provides ready records and references.  Legal defenses can depend upon written communication as it provides valid records. Uttarakhand Open University 40 English Communcation BHMAECC-II 3.4.3 DISADVANTAGES OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION  Written communication does not save upon the costs. It costs huge in terms of stationery and the manpower employed in writing/typing and delivering letters.  Also, if the receivers of the written message are separated by distance and if they need to clear their doubts, the response is not spontaneous.  Effective written communication requires great skills and competencies in language and vocabulary use. Poor writing skills and quality have a negative impact on organization‘s reputation.  Written communication is time-consuming as the feedback is not immediate. The encoding and sending of message takes time.  Too much paper work and e-mails burden is involved. 3.5 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ORAL AND WRITTEN COMMUNICATION Most of us intuitively understand that there are differences between oral and written language. All communication includes the transfer of information from one person to another, and while the transfer of information is only the first step in the process of understanding a complex phenomenon, it is an important first step. Writing is a fairly static form of transfer. Speaking is a dynamic transfer of information. To be an effective speaker, you must exploit the dynamism of oral communication, but also learn to work within its limitations. While there is a higher level of immediacy and a lower level of retention in the spoken word, a speaker has more ability to engage the audience psychologically and to use complex forms of non-verbal communication The written language can be significantly more precise. Written words can be chosen with greater deliberation and thought, and a written argument can be extraordinarily sophisticated, intricate, and lengthy. These attributes of writing are possible because the pace of involvement is controlled by both the writer and the reader. The writer can write and rewrite at great length, a span of time which in some cases can be measured in years. Similarly, the reader can read quickly or slowly or even stop to think about what he or she has just read. More importantly, the reader always has the option of re-reading; even if that option is not exercised, its mere possibility has an effect upon a reader's understanding of a text. The written word appeals more to a contemplative, deliberative style. Speeches can also be precise and indeed they ought to be. But precision in oral communication comes only with a great deal of preparation and compression. Once spoken, words cannot be retracted, although one can apologize for a mistake and improvise a clarification or qualification. One can read from a written text and achieve the same degree of verbal precision as written communication. But word-for-word reading from a text is not speech-making, and in most circumstances audiences find speech-reading boring and retain very little of the information transmitted. Uttarakhand Open University 41 English Communcation BHMAECC-II On the other hand, oral communication can be significantly more effective in expressing meaning to an audience. This distinction between precision and effectiveness is due to the extensive repertoire of signals available to the speaker: gestures, intonation, inflection, volume, pitch, pauses, movement, visual cues such as appearance, and a whole host of other ways to communicate meaning. A speaker has significantly more control over what the listener will hear than the writer has over what the reader will read. For these techniques to be effective, however, the speaker needs to make sure that he or she has the audience's attention--audiences do not have the luxury of re-reading the words spoken. The speaker, therefore, must become a reader of the audience. Reading an audience is a systematic and cumulative endeavor unavailable to the writer. As one speaks, the audience provides its own visual cues about whether it is finding the argument coherent, comprehensible, or interesting. Speakers should avoid focusing on single individuals within an audience. There are always some who scrunch up their faces when they disagree with a point; others will stare out the window; a few rude (but tired) persons will fall asleep. These persons do not necessarily represent the views of the audience; much depends upon how many in the audience manifest these signals. By and large, one should take the head- nodders and the note-takers as signs that the audience is following one's argument. If these people seem to outnumber the people not paying attention, then the speech is being well-received. The single most important bit of evidence about the audience's attention, however, is eye contact. If members of the audience will look back at you when you are speaking, then you have their attention. If they look away, then your contact with the audience is probably fading. Speeches probably cannot be sophisticated and intricate. Few audiences have the listening ability or background to work through a difficult or complex argument, and speakers should not expect them to be able to do so. Many speakers fail to appreciate the difficulties of good listening, and most speakers worry about leaving out some important part of the argument. One must be acutely aware of the tradeoff between comprehensiveness and comprehension. Trying to put too much into a speech is probably the single most frequent error made by speakers. This desire to "say everything" stems from the distinctive limitations of speeches: after a speech, one cannot go back and correct errors or omissions, and such mistakes could potentially cripple the persuasiveness of a speech. A speaker cannot allow himself or herself to fall into this mentality. At the outset, a speaker must define an argument sharply and narrowly and must focus on only that argument. There are certainly implications of an argument that are important but cannot be developed within the speech. These aspects should be clearly acknowledged by the speaker, but deferred to a question-and-answer period, a Uttarakhand Open University 42 English Communcation BHMAECC-II future speech, or a reference to a work that the audience can follow-up on its own. Speakers must exercise tight and disciplined control over content. As a rule of thumb, the audience will remember about one-half of what was said in a twenty-minute talk. After twenty-minutes, recall drops off precipitously. Oral arguments should therefore be parsed down as much as possible. There are very few circumstances in which an audience will recall a great deal of the information in a speech longer than twenty minutes. Most evidence suggests that audience recall declines precipitously after 16 and one-helf minutes. Oral communication uses words with fewer syllables than the written language, the sentences are shorter, and self-referencing pronouns such as I are common. Oral communication also allows incomplete sentences if delivered properly, and many sentences will begin with "and," "but," and "except." The upshot of these differences is that one should not think about speeches as oral presentations of a written text. Speeches are genuinely different from written