Human Communication Further Reading PDF

Human communication further reading \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Organisational Communication: Miller The challenge of Organisational communication Chapter 1 Four aspects of our world that have dominated the news in recent years are globalisation, terrorism, climate change, and changing demographics. Globalisation: As transportation and telecommunication systems improve, our world has become more connected on a personal and organisational level creating a global economy and a global market. In a global economy many organisations have a multinational presence, even in developing countries. Due to this interconnectedness, the collapse of a country's organisation can have international repercussions, such as the case with the collapse of the Greek economy in 2010. \ Globalisation has offered many exciting opportunities for entrepreneurs, and for the common people due to its promotion of accessibility. However, one cannot ignore the problems related to domestic job loss, the exploitation of workers in third world countries, and environmental problems it has caused. In terms of organisational communication, globalisation has raised a set of new questions: - How can communication processes be used to protect the rights of workers? - How does 'organising' occur in the realm of the political and economic policy debates that are critical to the long-term direction of the global economy? - How do corporations communicate about the balance between providing goods and services at a price preferred by customers while providing an economically secure workplace for their employees. Chapter 2: Classical approaches In order to better understand what is an organisation, and how it works is through a comparison, such as the machine metaphor. The theories of Fayol, Weber, and Taylor all share this metaphor. 1. Specialisation - like the different components of a machine which work together for the proper operation of the engine, organisations have the same type of specialisation whereby everyone is responsible for a particular task, leading to the division of labour. 2. Standardisation/replaceability - when part of a machine breaks, it can be replaced by another which serves the same purpose. Likewise, when a worker in an organisation quits, they can be replaced by another worker who is trained for the same role, thus becoming interchangeable. 3. Predictability - when a machine stops working it is caused by a finite number of problems, and once identified the problem can be fixed. Similarly, an organisation runs smoothly due to specific rules and standards it imposes. If the organisation is dysfunctional, it can be fixed by assessing whether the rules are being misapplied. Henry Fayol's theory of classical management Elements of management: Fayol proposed 5 fundamental elements of management: 1. Planning 2. Organising 3. Command 4. Coordination 5. Control Principles of organisational structure: Fayol identifies 6 principles of organisational structure: 1. Scalar chain - a hierarchy through which communication flows 2. Unity of command 3. Unity of direction - activities having similar goals should be placed under a single supervisor 4. Division of labour 5. Order 6. Span of control The 3 principles of organisational power deal are: 1. Centralisation - central management has control over decision-making and employee activities 2. Authority and responsibility - authority is derived from both organisational and personal characteristics. Responsibility must accompany authority in equal measure 3. Discipline - everyone should obey the rules of the organisation. Principles of Organisational reward according to Fayol: - Remuneration of personnel - employees are rewarded for their work with appropriate salaries and benefits - Equity - employees treated justly in all organisational behaviour - Tenure stability - the organisation guarantees sufficient time on the job to maximise employee performance. Principles of organisational attitude: - Subordination of individual interest to general interest - Initiative - the employee's efforts should be directed towards the organisation's best interests - Esprit de corps - there should be no friction in the organisation ranks Fayol's theory summary: Ultimately, Fayol paints a picture of how an organisation should be run. According to his principles of management, an effective organisation is highly structured, and each individual knows where he or she fits. Clear structures facilitate the functioning of the organisation, and clear rules deal with these structures. Employees are rewarded through the equitable distribution of monetary rewards and are encouraged to labour strictly for the goals of the organisation rather than for their own individual interests. Max Weber's Theory of Bureaucracy Bureaucracy - The historical meaning of the term refers to a body of non-elected government officials, but is nowadays understood as an administrative system used by corporations and public institutions. Weber, a German sociologist, believed that bureaucratic organisations would eventually dominate in society because of their technical superiority. Weber argued that there are 6 facets of bureaucracy: 1. Hierarchy 2. Division of labour 3. Centralisation 4. Closed systems - a bureaucratic system will shut itself off from influences of the outside world because environmental interruptions could hamper its smooth functioning. 5. Importance of rules - rules should be rationally established and codified. 6. Functioning of authority - bureaucracies work through a system of authority, power, and discipline, which are based on 1 of 3 possible grounds: 1. Traditional authority 2\. Charismatic authority 3\. Rational-legal authority - a form of authority based on legal rules and procedures, emphasising the importance of legitimacy for maintaining social and political order Weber's theory Summary: In summary, Weber's theory concerns the "ideal type" features of the organisational form known as bureaucracy. He proposed that a bureaucracy is a closed system driven by rational-legal authority. Within this system, there is a strict reliance on rules, division of labour, and a clearly established hierarchy in which power is centralised. The result is a highly impersonal organisation in which rationality is the guiding force and individuality is discouraged. Frederik Taylor's Theory of Scientific Management This theory focuses on the relationship between the manager and the employee, and the control of the individual at work This theory was developed in response to 2 impediments: 1. The uneven work that resulted from job training through custom 2. The systematic soldiering that resulted from rate busting and the system of piecework pay. Components of Scientific Management There are 4 major tenets constituting this theory: 1. There is one best way to do every job - job skills cannot be passed down from one person to another, but the best way to do every job can be determined through time and motion studies 2. Proper selection of workers 3. Training workers 4. There is an inherent difference between management and workers - managers specialise in thinking and planning while workers are best-fitted for labour. Thus, Taylor's system of scientific management is one in which scientific methods are used to determine the best way to do each job. After this best way is determined, workers are scientifically selected for their jobs and trained in the methods deemed most appropriate by time and motion studies. The organisation functions by maintaining a strict distinction between workers and managers Communication in Classical approaches In Fayol's, Weber's and Taylor's theories related to machine-like organisations, one asks what is communication like. To answer this question let us consider several aspects of communication: - Content of communication - according to Fayol's principle of "subordination of individual interest to general interest", thus communication within the organisation should be focused on task-related topics. According to Taylor's theory workers would not suggest ways of improving the way of the organisation since it is assumed that it has already been scientifically determined. --------------------------------- ------------------- Content of communication Task Direction of communication flow Vertical Channel of communication Typically written Style of communication Formal --------------------------------- ------------------- \ - Direction of Communication Flow - communication can flow vertically, horizontally, or free-flowing. In the classical theories of Fayol, Weber, and Taylor, the most important route is the vertical flow of information along the organisational hierarchy. - Channel of communication - although there are a variety of channels which facilitate communication, like face-to-face, the telephone or computer, based on the classical theories the written mode of communication is the most prevalent. - Style of communication - the bureaucratic and professionalised climate of these organisations will often lead to formal---some might say sterile---styles of communication. Classical Management in Organisations today Although the theories produced by Fayol, Weber, and Taylor were created many decades ago they are still relevant today. For example, considering the enrollment process of university, it requires a standardised procedure, paperwork, documentation etc. Moreover even in a fast-food restaurant they have determined the "one best way" to make a hamburger and they follow it religiously. There are 2 specific tenets of classical management which are still in popular use today: 1. Classical structure in today's organisations - The structure of division of labour and strict hierarchy is clear in military organisation, manufacturing, and service organisations. In some contemporary organisations cross-functional teams are encouraged, since there is often value in communication among individuals with a variety of tasks. 2. Classical job design and rewards in today's organisations - In today's society, especially with the widespread use of technology, organisations often look for the "one best way" to follow Taylor's ideas about fitting the job to the individual. Another concern of contemporary organisations is the role of financial rewards in the motivation of organisational members. Money is a critical factor in both recruiting employees and rewarding them. Chapter 3: Human relations and Human resources approaches The Human Relations Approach From Classical Theory to Human Relations: The Hawthorne Studies The research team led by Elton Mayo, were initially interested in how changes in the work environment would affect the productivity of factory workers. Like Taylor's Theory of Scientific Management, they attempted to discover aspects of the task environment that would maximise worker output and improve organisational efficiency. Four major phases marked the Hawthorne studies: 1. The illumination studies These were designed to determine the influence of lighting level on worker productivity. Surprisingly, there was no significant difference in the productivity of the control group and the experimental group. However, when workers were labouring in near darkness, productivity increased in both groups. 0. The relay Assembly Test room studies To better understand this phenomenon, the team of researchers introduced a number of changes to the group, including incentive plans, rest pauses, temperature, humidity, work hours, and refreshments. All changes were discussed with the workers beforehand, and detailed records of productivity were kept as these changes in the work environment were instituted. Productivity went up in a wide variety of situations. The researchers concluded that "social satisfactions arising out of human association in work were more important determinants of work behaviour in general and output in particular than were any of the physical and economic aspects of the work situation to which the attention had originally been limited". 0. The interview Program To clarify their findings, they conducted interviews with employees at the Hawthorne plant. Although the goal was to learn about the impact of working conditions on productivity, the interviewers found workers more interested in talking about their feelings and attitudes. Pugh and Hickson noted that many issues in worker-management cooperation stemmed more from the workers\' emotional attitudes than from the actual challenges of the situation. 0. The Bank Wiring Room Studies The final series of investigation involved the observation of a group of men, which revealed that the men developed norms regarding the "proper" level of productivity, to which everyone must conform to. This social pressure contradicted the organisation's goals regarding productivity and efficiency. Mayo and his colleagues concluded that the social group's influence on worker behaviour exceeded the leverage exerted by the formal organisational power structure. Explanations of Findings in the Hawthorne Studies The Hawthorne studies offered a number of findings. For example, productivity increases were often associated with changes in the work environment and with pay incentives. These explanations are consistent with the classical approach to organising, thus they were rejected by the investigating team at the Hawthorne plant, because they sought social and emotional needs of workers in relation to productivity. They concluded that worker output increased as a result of the attention paid to the workers by the researchers. This phenomenon is known as the Hawthorne effect. Secondly, the researchers proposed that worker output increased through the working of informal social factors, proved by the Relay Assembly Test, and the Bank Wiring Room Studies. Finally, the researchers believed that management style could account for some of the observed productivity changes. This conclusion was based on the impact of open communication between workers and managers in the relay assembly test room portion of the studies. These findings have encouraged organisations to turn away from the mechanistic views and consider the possibility that human needs and social interaction played an important role in organisational functioning. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory Abraham Maslow developed his hierarchy of needs theory as a general theory of human motivation, and has been applied in organising and management. +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Level 5 | Self-actualisation | Work allows the | | | | exercise of | | | | creativity. Reaching | | | | one's full potential | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Level 4 | Esteem | Internal: Rewarding | | | | work | | | | | | | | External: Bonus pay | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Level 3 | Affiliation | Social relationships | | | | with coworkers | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Level 2 | Safety | Physically safe | | | | working conditions | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Level1 | Physiological | 'Living wage' - | | | | purchase of food, | | | | housing. Labour does | | | | not violate the | | | | physical requirements | | | | of the human body | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ Maslow proposed that these five types of needs are arranged in a hierarchy of prepotency. The notion of prepotency suggests that lower-level needs must be satisfied before an individual can move on to higher-level needs. For example, an individual will not attempt to satisfy affiliation needs until needs for physiological functioning and safety have been provided for. McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y Theory X and Theory Y represent the divergent assumptions that managers can hold about organisational functioning.Theory X is representative of a manager influenced by the most negative aspects of classical management theories. In contrast, a Theory Y manager is one who adheres to the precepts of the human relations movement. \ The propositions of theory X are: - The average man in by nature indolent - He lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility, and prefers to be led - He is self-centred and indifferent to organisational needs - He is naturally resistant to change - He is gullible and not very bright While McGregor believes that these notions are incorrect, he is aware that this is a common mentality among managers. He believes that managers should conceptualise workers as motivated by the higher-order needs in Maslow's hierarchy and as capable of independent achievement in the workplace. These managerial assumptions are represented in McGregor's presentation of Theory Y: - The expenditure of physical and mental effort - Man will exercise self-direction and self-control in the service of objectives to which he is committed. - Commitment to objectives is a determined by the rewards associated with their achievement - The average human being learns to seek responsibility - The capacity to exercise imagination, ingenuity and creativity to solve organisational problems is widely distributed in the population. - Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the average human being are only partially utilised. \ Thus a Theory X manager assumes that a strong and forceful hand is essential for harnessing the efforts of basically unmotivated workers. In contrast, a Theory Y manager assumes that workers are highly motivated to satisfy achievement and self actualization needs and that the job of the manager is to bring out the natural tendencies of these intelligent and motivated workers. McGregor advocated the use of Theory Y management since it leads to a more satisfied and more productive workforce. McGregors\' thinking, like Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, emphasises the importance of attention, social interaction and individual achievement experienced by an employee. Employees are motivated not just by financial rewards but also by higher-order needs, emphasising the importance of relationships in organisational functioning. Unlike the machine metaphor of classical theories, the family metaphor in human relations theory highlights how fulfilment of needs and opportunities for self-actualization lead to a thriving workplace. The Human Resource Approach The human resources approach acknowledges contributions of classical and, especially, human relations approaches to organising. Human resources theorists recognize that individuals in organisations have feelings that must be considered and also recognize that individual labour is an important ingredient for meeting organisational goals. What human resources theorists add to the mix is an emphasis on the cognitive contributions employees make with their thoughts and ideas. The Impetus for the Human Resources Approach Although the ideas of the human relations theorists are widely held, in the mid 1900s there was a growing feeling that models of employee needs were insufficient for describing, explaining, and managing the complexities of organisational life. In particular, there was concern about whether human relations principles really worked and whether they could be misused by organisational practitioners. \ Do human relations principles work? Human relations theories suggest that treating employees well and fulfilling their higher-order needs can enhance job satisfaction and productivity. However, empirical evidence often contradicts this assumption, particularly regarding the connection between job satisfaction and performance. While job characteristics can motivate individuals and increase satisfaction, the link between satisfaction and productivity is less clear. Research indicates that factors like financial incentives or cultural influences may play a more significant role in driving performance. Ultimately, human behaviour is complex, and the expected outcomes of human relations theories do not consistently hold true in practice. \ Misuse of Human Relations Principles The human resources approach has attracted many organisations due to concerns about the manipulative use of human relations principles. Managers with a Theory X mindset might superficially adopt Theory Y behaviours, such as soliciting employee input without genuine intent to consider it. This \"pseudo-participation\" is ineffective and can fail to meet employee needs. Miles (1965) highlighted the discrepancy between managers' reported behaviours and their underlying beliefs, noting that human relations and human resources managers may advocate similar practices for different reasons. Human relations managers focus on employee needs for affiliation and esteem, while human resources managers aim to leverage employee skills for organisational benefit. Wendt (1998) further explored the "paradox of participation," where employees contribute but lack real decision-making power, leading to frustration. True empowerment through a human resources approach requires more than superficial changes; it necessitates a fundamental shift in organisational assumptions and structures. To illustrate this shift, two theories---Blake and Mouton's Managerial Grid and Likert's System IV---will be considered as examples of effective organisational change. Blake and Mouton's Managerial Grid Robert Blake and Jane Mouton created the Managerial Grid, now known as the Leadership Grid, to help train managers in effective leadership styles that boost organisational efficiency and worker satisfaction. They posited that effective leaders balance concern for people with concern for production, merging classical management principles with human relations. The Leadership Grid measures these concerns on a scale from 1 to 9, categorising management styles into five prototypical types: 1. **Impoverished Management (1,1)**: Low concern for both people and production; the manager does the minimum required. 2. **Country Club Management (1,9)**: High concern for people but low concern for production; focuses on creating a pleasant workplace. 3. **Authority-Compliance (9,1)**: High concern for production but low concern for people; prioritises efficiency over human needs. 4. **Team Management (9,9)**: High concern for both production and people; believes in achieving goals through committed and satisfied employees. 5. **Middle-of-the-Road Management (5,5)**: Balances concern for people and production, often resulting in compromise. Blake and Mouton advocate for the team management style as the most effective for maximising both productivity and employee satisfaction. Likert's System IV Blake and Mouton\'s Managerial Grid focuses on blending human relations and classical management to enhance leadership and maximise human resource potential. Rensis Likert further develops this by detailing organisational structures in his works, particularly in \"New Patterns of Management\" and \"The Human Organization.\" He identifies four organisational types which are more or less effective in satisfying organisational and individual goals: 1\. System I (Exploitive Authoritative): Relies on fear and threats, with top-down communication and decision-making. 2\. System II (Benevolent Authoritative): Uses economic and ego rewards, maintaining top-down control while claiming to care for workers. This is similar to System I but it does not incorporate the explicit goal of exploiting workers. 3\. System III (Consultative): Involves employee consultation before decisions, with improved communication but still centralised control. 4\. System IV (Participative): Empowers all members in decision-making, fostering extensive communication and valuing employee contributions. Likert argues that System IV organisations not only enhance individual satisfaction but also improve overall productivity. This approach combines elements of both classical and human relations theories, emphasising the importance of employee input in organisational effectiveness. Communication in Human relations and human resources organisations Content of communication Chapter 2 introduces the typology of communication by Farace, Monge, and Russell (1977), which identifies different types of communication in organisations. Classical organisations focus on task communication, while human relations organisations incorporate maintenance communication to foster quality relationships alongside task communication. In human resources organisations, innovation communication becomes prominent, emphasising employee input on improving processes, developing new products, and restructuring. This approach values employee contributions, making innovation communication essential for organisational effectiveness. +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | | Classical | Human relations | Human resources | | | Approach | | approach | | | | Approach | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Communication | Task | Task and Social | Task, social | | Content | | | and innovation | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Communication | Vertical | Vertical and | All directions, | | | (downward) | Horizontal | team-based | | Direction | | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Communication | Usually written | Often | All channels | | Channel | | face-to-face | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Communication | Formal | Informal | Both, | | Style | | | especially | | | | | informal | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ Communication flow In classical organisations, communication primarily flows downward from management to employees. The human relations approach maintains this vertical flow but emphasises the importance of horizontal communication among employees. This approach views interaction among peers as crucial for meeting needs and achieving organisational goals. In human resources organisations, the aim is to facilitate communication in all directions---downward, upward, horizontal, and diagonal---often through team-based settings. This strategy allows for a more dynamic exchange of ideas and may involve restructuring the organisational chart to enhance communication. Channel of communication In Chapter 2, it\'s highlighted that classical organisations prioritise written communication for its permanence, while the human relations approach values face-to-face interaction for its immediacy and ability to convey nonverbal cues. This direct communication better addresses human needs. In human resources organisations, no single communication method is preferred; effective managers adapt their communication style to fit the task. Rich communication channels, like face-to-face meetings, are suited for uncertain tasks, while lean channels, such as written memos, are better for more straightforward situations. Style of communication In Chapter 2, it\'s noted that classical organisations prioritise formal communication, emphasising professionalism and bureaucracy. In contrast, human relations organisations aim to reduce status differences between managers and employees, promoting informal communication to meet social needs. This informal approach fosters affiliation and likely enhances organisational effectiveness, as employees may feel more comfortable sharing ideas. However, human resources managers recognize that formal communication may still be necessary when appropriate for specific tasks. Human relations and Human Resources Organisations today Human relations theories emerged as a response to classical management systems, emphasising the importance of addressing human needs for organisational success. Today's management reflects these principles by recognizing employees as vital contributors rather than interchangeable parts. For instance, decisions like factory shutdowns now consider both economic factors and employee welfare, such as severance pay and retraining. In job design, organisations strive to enrich roles by enhancing autonomy, variety, and significance, addressing higher-order needs. The evolution of human resources theory has led to concepts like learning organisations, which focus on mental flexibility, team learning, and shared vision. Scholars also emphasise knowledge management, viewing organisations as cycles of knowledge creation and application. \ These approaches highlight the value of leveraging employees\' cognitive abilities, suggesting that effective organisations cultivate environments that foster participation and dialogue. The chapter will further explore contemporary human resources management practices and how they can be effectively implemented in organisations. The "What" of Human Resource Programs Organisational programs today exemplify human resources principles by emphasising team management and employee involvement, which are crucial for product quality and productivity. Cotton (1993) defines employee involvement as a participative process that utilises workers\' full potential to foster commitment to organisational success. The aim is to create a \"knowledge-enabled organisation\" where collective knowledge enhances performance (Tobin, 1998; Fisher & Duncan, 1998). While specific programs may differ, they all aim to structure organisations to maximise individual and collective employee contributions. Pfeffer (1998) refers to this as \"putting people first,\" highlighting seven key practices of successful organisations that align with human resources principles. These practices encompass various aspects like compensation, employment security, and organisational structure, while also stressing the importance of communication for information sharing, teamwork, training, and reducing status differentials. The "How" of Human Resource Programs The principles of human resources management can be effectively implemented in organisations, but they often fail in practice. Jassawalla and Sashittal (1999) highlight that many collaborative teams, despite initial optimism, are not managed successfully. A notable example is Total Quality Management (TQM), which has seen many failures despite widespread adoption; research by Choi and Behling (1997) reveals that many executives doubt its impact on competitiveness, and some successful programs have faltered. To enhance the success of human resources initiatives, several key factors should be considered: 1\. Appropriateness of Team-Based Management: Team-based structures are more effective in complex, innovative, and cross-functional environments. 2\. Top Management Attitudes: Change initiatives require commitment from top management, as they ultimately drive the change process. 3\. Addressing Employee Cynicism: Employees often distrust new programs. Keeping them involved, addressing their concerns, rewarding effective communication, and minimising surprises can reduce scepticism. 4\. Facilitating Understanding of New Terminology: Successful implementation of new programs necessitates that employees grasp the specific language and concepts associated with them, which helps them effectively adopt their roles. These considerations are crucial for fostering a more conducive environment for human resources programs to succeed. Summary In this chapter, we explored two key approaches to organisational communication: the human relations approach and the human resources approach. The human relations approach, influenced by the Hawthorne studies, emphasises human needs in management and job design, exemplified by Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs and McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y. However, this approach often faced limited support and was applied inconsistently. In contrast, the human resources movement seeks to enhance both organisational productivity and employee satisfaction through effective human resource management. This approach is represented by models like Blake and Mouton\'s Managerial Grid and Rensis Likert\'s System IV. We also analysed communication within these frameworks, focusing on aspects such as content, direction, channels, and style. The chapter concluded with an overview of contemporary human resources practices, detailing specific programs and principles for prioritising employee well-being and discussing strategies for effective implementation. Chapter 5: Cultural Approaches In this chapter organisations are regarded as cultures. This metaphor is derived from anthropology. As Pacanowsky and O'Donnell-Trujillo (1983) note, "Each organisation has its own way of doing what it does and its own way of talking about what it is doing" (p. 128). To discover these ways of doing and ways of talking is to investigate organisational culture. This chapter considers 2 ways of thinking about culture: 1. Culture as something an organisation has: the kind of culture adopted can make or break the organisation. 2. Culture as something an organisation is. A model of culture developed by Edgar Shein, conceptualises culture as the assumptions, values, behaviours, and artefacts that an organisation exhibits as it attempts to adapt to internal and external organisational contingencies. Prescriptive Views of Culture The concept of "culture" took the business and academic community by storm for several reasons. First, the metaphor of culture clearly resonated with both academics and practitioners. It simply made sense to see organisations as complex arenas of stories and values rather than as entirely rational institutions. Second, the cultural metaphor opened up new and fruitful areas of research, as you will discover in this chapter. And, finally, culture quickly became a part of everyday talk in carpools and around water coolers. Deal and Kennedy's "Strong Cultures" Deal and Kennedy argue that business success can be enhanced through the development of a "strong" culture which has a better place for workers and improves individual and organisational performance. Deal and Kennedy identify 4 key components of a strong culture: 1. Values - beliefs and visions held by members of an organisation, ex: innovation and stability 2. Heroes - individuals who exemplify an organisation's values, becoming known through the stories and myths of an organisation, ex: Steve Jobs exemplifies innovation and market savvy at Apple. 3. Rites and Rituals - ceremonies through which an organisation celebrates its values. 4. Cultural network - the communication system through which cultural values are instituted and reinforced. Peters and Waterman's "Excellent Cultures" Like Deal and Kennedy, Peters and Waterman were attempting to identify aspects of organisational culture that were prevalent in high-performing companies. They studied sixty-two organisations deemed "excellent" by employees and organisational experts. They then identified "themes" that characterised the cultures of these organisations. Both *Corporate Cultures* and *In Search of Excellence* significantly influenced organisational practices by highlighting the importance of intangible aspects like values and heroes, moving beyond purely rational organisational models. However, they faced criticism from the academic community for focusing on prescriptive managerial practices rather than descriptive analyses of organisational life. For instance, Deal and Kennedy advocate for a strong, shared culture as essential for business success, while Peters and Waterman promote a "bias for action." Such prescriptions oversimplify the complexities of organisational culture and assume that culture is a fixed entity that all members share, which neglects the dynamic processes through which culture is created and maintained. This objectification can lead to misunderstandings about the stability and uniformity of organisational culture over time. Scholars who study organisational culture typically prefer to describe and understand its complexities rather than adopt the prescriptive stance of these earlier works. While the values suggested in these books can contribute positively to organisational performance---like prioritising customer needs or avoiding excessive diversification---they also risk suggesting a one-size-fits-all cultural formula, which is overly simplistic and potentially naive. More recent management literature has echoed some of these themes, indicating their lasting influence despite their limitations. Organised Cultures are Complicated Organisational culture is complex and can be studied through various \"markers.\" Scholars like Beyer and Trice identify rites (e.g., rites of passage, renewal) as cultural indicators, while others, such as Dandridge, focus on ceremonies. Quinn and McGrath emphasise the role of values and beliefs, and Smith and Eisenberg analyse metaphors used by employees. Boje and Meyer suggest that stories told within the organisation reveal culture, while Schall and Morley investigate communication rules. Additionally, informal conversations, or hallway talk, can also provide insights. Scholars may focus on individual markers or examine how these diverse cultural manifestations interact, highlighting the intricate nature of organisational culture. Organisational Cultures are Emergent An agreement among scholars is the notion that cultures are socially created through the interaction of organisational members. This means that culture is not only transmitted through communication, but communication itself is a constitutive of culture. Pacanowsky and O'Donnell-Trijillo's work argues that studies on organisational culture should concentrate on the communication process through which culture is created. Moreover, these communication processes can be best conceptualised as "performances" that are interactional, contextual, episodic, and improvisational. \ Cultural performances are: 1. Interactional 2. Contextual 3. Episodic 4. Improvisational Organisational Cultures are not Unitary Organisations are characterised by a multitude of subcultures that may coexist in harmony, conflict, or indifference to each other". Where are these subcultures found in an organisation? In an organisation, different areas/sites (a division/hierarchical level) may be the point of emergence of a subculture. Subcultures might also emerge around networks of personal contacts or demographic similarity. One additional consideration of the nonunitary nature of organisational culture is that various subcultures within an organisation may represent important differences in power and in interests. Organisational Cultures are Often Ambiguous Scholars of organisational culture recognize that an organisation's culture, including its subcultures, can be complex and ambiguous. Martin (2002) describes this as the fragmentation perspective, emphasising that such ambiguity is a normal aspect of contemporary organisational functioning. In a rapidly changing, postmodern world, understanding organisational culture becomes even more challenging. For example, Risberg (1999) studied a Swedish manufacturing company post-acquisition and found that cultural interpretations were varied and ambiguous, reflecting multiple realities within the organisation. Current scholars focus on how communication and interaction shape an organisation\'s unique culture, considering the intricate mix of values, behaviours, and narratives that define it. They also explore the coexistence of various subcultures and acknowledge the inherent fluidity of culture. The following section will review a specific model of organisational culture, providing a useful framework for analysing these complexities, even if it doesn't capture all contemporary nuances. Schein's Model Of Organisational Culture Edgar Schein is a management scholar and consultant interested in the role of leaders in the development and maintenance of organisational culture. The model of culture he describes in *Organisational Culture and Leadership* provides a helpful way to understand how culture can be understood in a variety of organisational forms and contexts. A Definition of Culture Schein (1992) first defines the culture of a social group---an organisation or other collective---in the following way: \[A\] pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid, and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think and feel in relation to those problems. Schein defines culture as a collective phenomenon, emphasising that it cannot exist at the individual level since it relies on communication within groups. These groups can vary in size from large civilizations to small organisations. He notes that cultures often exhibit fragmentation but also fulfil a human need for stability and meaning, which drives a tendency toward integration. Schein identifies culture as a set of basic assumptions that are enduring and not easily changed, with individuals often unaware of these underlying beliefs. He views organisational culture as encompassing values, behaviours, rules, and artefacts, but considers basic assumptions to be the core from which other elements emerge. Additionally, he describes culture as an emergent process, shaped by a group\'s responses to internal and external challenges. For example, the culture of Internet startups evolved dramatically in response to the economic climate before and after the dot-com bubble burst. \ Lastly, Schein highlights the socialising aspect of culture within organisations, where newcomers learn the existing cultural assumptions and values. However, this is not a one-sided process; newcomers can also contribute to the evolution of the culture through their interactions with established members. *Organisational communication: A critical approach* by Mumby **Chapter 1: Introducing Organisational Communication** Organisations as communicative structures of control Over the past century, management and organisational communication theories have evolved to address the challenge of controlling large numbers of people within organisations. As capitalism became dominant in the late 19th century, social scientists began exploring how to motivate individuals to perform tasks they might not inherently desire. A central issue in organisational theory is the tension between the goals of the individual and those of the organisation. Sociologist Charles Perrow argued that this \"human relations\" problem, particularly in authoritarian settings, has been a key focus of social scientists. For-profit organisations face challenges in aligning individual interests with organisational goals, and these tensions often lead to efforts to subordinate individual desires to the needs of the organisation. Arthur Tannenbaum emphasised that control is essential for organising human interactions, helping to harmonise diverse behaviours with organisational objectives. However, employees are not passive in this process; they often resist control mechanisms, creating a dynamic tension between management and employees. These struggles are evident in how employees may subvert organisational culture efforts or create countercultures. However, organisation members are not passive recipients of control; they resist management efforts to limit their autonomy. Control is a complex, dialectical process, not linear. Employees often respond creatively to control mechanisms, sometimes subverting corporate culture or creating countercultures that reject management-imposed values, leading to unintended outcomes. The history of management thought, therefore, is not just about control, but also about the creative, sometimes unintended responses of employees. Understanding organisational communication requires a framework that acknowledges the historical, social, and political contexts from which these theories emerge. Defining "Organisational Communication" W.Charles Redding argues that organisations are complex structures that exhibit the following 4 essential features: 1. Interdependence 2. Differentiation of tasks and functions 3. Goal orientation 4. Control 5. Communication (not included by Redding) Interdependence Organisations are interdependent systems where no member functions without influencing or being influenced by others. In complex settings like universities, various groups (students, faculty, staff, administrators) shape and are shaped by one another. Interdependence has become more pronounced as organisations globalise and grow in complexity. For example, changes in one part of an organisation, like a financial collapse, can trigger widespread effects, as seen in the 2008 global recession. This interconnectedness is a key focus of systems theory. Differentiation of Tasks and Functions All organisations operate on the principle of division of labour, where tasks are specialised and departments are created. This concept, first illustrated by Adam Smith in the 18th century, was central to the rise of scientific management in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Despite changes like post bureaucratic structures and job enrichment, division of labour remains a core feature of modern capitalism, evident in settings like production lines and fast-food restaurants. Goal Orientation Organisations, whether nonprofit or for-profit, are defined by their goals, which unite members toward a common purpose. Barnard (1938) emphasised that organisations form when individuals communicate and collaborate to achieve shared objectives. However, organisations often face competing goals, such as conflicts between R&D and marketing departments. Additionally, external pressures, like shareholder demands for short-term profits, can conflict with broader goals, leading to negative consequences, such as environmental harm or economic instability, as seen in examples like BP\'s oil drilling. Control Mechanisms Control is essential in complex organisations to align employee behaviour with organisational goals, often addressing conflicts of interest. While necessary, control mechanisms can negatively impact employees. Redding identifies two forms of control (hierarchy and rules), and the chapter outlines five contemporary control mechanisms used in organisations. \ 1. Direct control - control employees in explicit ways and monitor their behaviour to make sure they are performing adequately 2. Technological control - controls the work people do and the speed at which they work. Henry Ford\'s moving production line exemplified technological control by regulating workers\' production rate and limiting social interaction 3. Bureaucratic control - a system of rules, formal structures, and roles that both enable and constrain the activities of organisation members. 4. Ideological control - a system of values and beliefs with which employees are expected to identify strongly. Little direct supervision 5. Disciplinary control - a 'bottom up' form of control that focuses on employees\' own production of a particular sense of self and work identity. Thus, individuals constantly engage in forms of self-discipline in which the creation and continual improvement of an "entrepreneurial self" is the goal. Communication Processes Communication is central to organisations, constituting their very existence. The \"CCO\" (Communication Constitutes Organization) approach argues that organisations are created through communication, which shapes their systems and meaning. Organisational communication involves creating and negotiating collective meanings through symbolic practices like conversation and rituals, all aimed at achieving goals. This dynamic relationship between communication and organisation defines how both influence and shape one another, forming the basis for the framework to examine different approaches to organisational communication. \ Framing Theories of Organisational Communication Each of these discourses are related to the modernist approach, referring to both a historical epoch and a way of thinking in which science, rationality and progress are the dominant themes. Functionalism: The Discourse of Representation The practitioners of this discourse believe that progress and emancipation can be best achieved through a process of discovery, in which the application of science principles gradually and progressively illuminates the world for us. This view, exemplified by models like Shannon and Weaver\'s, overlooks the complexity of communication, ignoring factors like ambiguity, unintentional meanings, and the active role of receivers in creating meaning, which can lead to oversimplified solutions for organisational communication problems. Interpretivism: The Discourse of Understanding This perspective sees a direct relationship between communication processes and who we are as human beings, and which communication constitutes the world. The interpretive discourse views communication as central to creating social reality, shifting the focus from communication as a process within organisations to communication as the process that creates organisations. Critical Theory: The Discourse of Suspicion The critical perspective, like the interpretive approach, views reality as shaped by collective communication practices, but emphasises the role of power in this process. It argues that powerful groups control communication resources, subtly shaping organisational realities to maintain power dynamics, often through hidden mechanisms. Critical scholars focus on how organisational meanings are constructed and how these meanings either sustain or challenge power relations, aiming to give voice to marginalised groups and critique the dominance of managerial control. Postmodernism: The Discourse Of Vulnerability Postmodernism challenges traditional views of knowledge and truth, rejecting the idea of a single, objective reality in favour of multiple, subjective perspectives. It argues that communication constructs reality, rather than merely reflecting it, emphasising the importance of discourse in shaping identities and social meaning. In organisational studies, postmodernism critiques the stability of organisations, highlighting how dominant worldviews shape organisational culture and power dynamics, and examining how control and resistance manifest in modern, post-Fordist work environments. \ Feminism: The Discourse of Empowerment Feminist approaches to organisational communication, emerging in the 1990s, focus on gender and voice, addressing how organisations have historically excluded women, particularly from leadership roles. Feminist research explores the intersection of gender, power, and organisational structures, with varying perspectives such as liberal feminism advocating for equal opportunities, radical feminism seeking to create alternative non-patriarchal organisational forms, and critical feminism examining gender as a constitutive force within organisational power dynamics. Feminism now looks at how both women and men perform gendered identities in organisational contexts. **Miller: Chapter 4 System Approach** A system is an assembly of components. In an organisation these are the people and departments that make up the organisation. Three concepts characterise system components: 1. Hierarchical Ordering - a system involves subsystems and supersystems. In an organisation these are the different departments. Ex: a hospital has a number of departmental subsystems like surgical units, ER, labs etc. these are composed of smaller groups. Moving in the other direction, the hospital is part of a supersystem - the healthcare industry, including: insurance, clinics etc. \ 0. Interdependence - components of the system rely on each other to function 0. Permeability - allow information and materials to flow in and out. System Processes Systems are characterised by input-throughput-output. That is, a system "inputs" materials or information from the environment through its permeable boundaries. The system then works on these inputs with some kind of transformational process; this is "throughput." Finally, the system returns the transformed "output" to the environment. Two kinds of processes characterise input--throughput--output operations: \ 1. The process of exchange - The process of exchange involves both input and output activities, requiring interaction with the external environment. The permeability of system boundaries affects this exchange; some organisations have open boundaries, while others are more closed. For example, defence contractors during the Cold War operated as closed systems but, after the Cold War, needed to open up to consumer markets for survival, shifting to consumer-oriented products like satellites. 2. The process of feedback - Feedback is crucial for system functioning, aiding interdependent components. Two types are important: negative (corrective) feedback, which maintains steady functioning, and positive (growth) feedback, which drives change and development. For example, corrective feedback addresses errors, while growth feedback encourages system transformation. Dysfunctional feedback, like in codependent organisations, can reinforce harmful behaviours, such as workaholism, by relying on limited feedback loops. System Properties These are some system properties that emerge from the interaction of these components and processes: 1. Holism - the whole is greater than the sum of the parts. More can be achieved when the different components are working together. 2. Equifinality - achieving the same end goal through different techniques/methods. 3. Negative entropy - the tendency of open systems to sustain themselves and grow through the flow of information and materials with the environment. 4. Requisite Variety - the internal workings of the system must be diverse and complicated as the environment in which it is embedded Three Systems Theories 1. Cybernetic Systems Theory - the process through which physical, natural, and organisational systems are steered towards reaching system goals. This theory was developed by Norbert Wiener. A cybernetic system involves interrelated components, including a system goal, mechanisms, and feedback. For example, the human body maintains a temperature goal of 98.6°F, using mechanisms like sweating or shivering to adjust when temperatures deviate. In organisational communication, a performance review model mirrors this system. For instance, Gina\'s sales goal is set at 10% improvement. When feedback shows only a 2% improvement, new strategies like telemarketing are implemented. Cybernetics highlights feedback and system interdependence, but does not address system growth or environmental influence. 2. Karl Weick's theory of organising - Karl Weick\'s work, particularly in *The Social Psychology of Organizing* (1979) and *Sensemaking in Organizations* (1995), significantly shaped organisational communication theory. Weick defines organising as the process of reducing ambiguity in an organisation's information environment through communication cycles. Organisational members use assembly rules and interaction to make sense of ambiguous situations. In complex or uncertain environments, these cycles evolve, and effective sensemaking helps organisations retain useful strategies. Weick emphasises that organisations co-create their environment through enactment, and that reducing ambiguity is crucial for successful organising, especially in competitive or crisis-driven settings. \ 0. "New Science" Systems Theory - In recent decades, new areas of systems theory, such as chaos theory, complexity theory, and self-organising systems, have gained prominence in organisational research. These theories, inspired by fields like physics and cosmology, challenge traditional linear models by viewing organisations as adaptive systems where order can emerge from disorder. They emphasise complexity, fluctuating information, and the potential for innovation at the \"edge of chaos.\" Key principles for organisational communication include the importance of relationships, participation, embracing change, and being open to diverse information, highlighting interdependence and the need for adaptability in complex environments. Ideas for organisational communication derived from the new sciences include: - The importance of relationships in organisations - The importance of participation in organisational processes - The appreciation of organisational change and instability - The importance of being open to the information environment. **Mumby Chapter 7: Power and Resistance at Work** Power is a pervasive feature of organizational life, of even the most routine organizational events. By examining how organizational power operates, we gain a stronger understanding of organizations as political sites, that is, as places where various actors bring different and competing interests and resources (economic, political, and symbolic) to the table. Power is a complex and multifaceted concept central to social relations, with its visibility varying across contexts. In clear hierarchical relationships, such as professor-student or superior-subordinate dynamics, power is overtly exercised. For instance, professors dictate course content and assign grades, establishing a dependent relationship with students. While alternative teaching models may empower students, professors still hold ultimate authority. In contrast, power dynamics in participatory work teams are less explicit. These decentralized structures aim to empower workers by fostering equal decision-making, challenging traditional hierarchical models of power. As organizations evolve, so do the complexities of power, making simple conceptions inadequate. Understanding power in such settings requires nuanced theories to capture its operation in diverse organizational contexts. Exploring various power theories helps illuminate how it functions in everyday life, particularly as organizations transition to flatter and more collaborative systems. Power as a social influence Social psychologists John French and Bertram Raven (1959) examined supervisor-subordinate relations in developing a model of power as a process of social influence. They argued that power-as-influence occurs when a psychological change takes place in the person or persons being influenced. As a result of their research, they developed five bases for social influence: 1. Positional (legitimate) power - occurs by virtue of a person's position in an organisational hierarchy. 2. Referent power - rooted in the charisma of the person exercising influence 3. Expert power - resides in a person\'s ability to provide to an organisation knowledge and expertise that other members do not possess. 4. Reward power - the ability to provide subordinates with resources that result in positive feelings about themselves and the organisation. 5. Coercive power - generally used to get a subordinate to do something they wouldn't typically do. French and Raven's power model highlights two key points. First, the bases of power overlap; for instance, positional power often includes coercive and reward power due to organizational authority. Second, all forms of power are relational, relying on interdependence between the power holder and the subordinate. For example, coercive power only works if the subordinate values the threat, such as fearing a failing grade. Similarly, the effectiveness of reward power can diminish if rewards lose their appeal, especially in unfulfilling work. Power is dynamic and relational rather than a static possession. It operates through interdependent relationships where resources gain value only if others desire them. Everyone holds some power, even in constraining situations, as demonstrated by acts of resistance like a prisoner's hunger strike. Sociologist Anthony Giddens describes this capacity as \"agency\" or the ability to "act otherwise." This chapter broadens the discussion beyond interpersonal power, examining power as a societal process that shapes everyday life and societal discourses. The debate over power intensified in political science during the mid-20th century, dividing scholars into pluralists, who saw power as widely distributed, and elitists, who argued it was concentrated among a privileged few. These perspectives evolved into one-dimensional and two-dimensional views of power, respectively. The One-Dimensional Model of Power Robert Dahl, a pluralist, defined power behaviorally as the ability of one individual or group (A) to influence another (B) to act contrary to their usual behavior. For example, a boss exerts power over an employee by persuading them to work late on a report instead of going out. Dahl emphasized that power requires conflict, where differing perspectives or agendas exist. The party with greater power achieves its preferred outcome. In his study of political decision-making in New Haven, Connecticut, Dahl demonstrated that power was distributed among multiple groups, with no single group dominating outcomes, aligning with the pluralist view of diverse interest representation. The Two-Dimensional Model of Power The political elitists, notably Peter Bachrach and Morton Baratz, critiqued Dahl's power model for oversimplification, proposing a "two faces of power" framework. They argued power operates not only when A influences B to act contrary to their norm but also when A prevents B from acting as they would. This includes both decisions and nondecisions, where power shapes outcomes by limiting dissent. For example, in a city meeting about a proposed Wal-Mart, small business owners opposing the plan might feel silenced by Wal-Mart representatives dominating the discussion. This reflects what Bachrach and Baratz termed the "mobilization of bias," where elites shape discussions to focus on unthreatening issues, sidelining controversial topics like harm to local businesses or environmental impact. Their model underscores subtle power dynamics, where conflict is prevented rather than expressed. Unlike pluralists, they argued power is unequally distributed, favoring elites who manipulate political and social frameworks to advance their interests while suppressing potential opposition. The Three-Dimensional Model of Power Steven Lukes critiqued earlier models of power by Dahl and Bachrach & Baratz, arguing they narrowly viewed power as a behavioral phenomenon involving overt or covert conflict. In contrast, Lukes introduced a three-dimensional model that emphasizes power's ability to shape people's wants, beliefs, and values, even in the absence of conflict. Lukes argued that the ultimate exercise of power is influencing others to internalize desires and behaviors that align with the power holder's interests. For instance, businesses shape consumer needs through advertising, convincing people they need products like "must-have" holiday toys. Similarly, organizations cultivate employee identification with their values, such as Disney or McDonald's training employees to align with company philosophies. This deeper form of power operates subtly, shaping consensus and embedding organizational or societal ideologies into everyday life. Organisational Communication and Ideology Ideology and power are deeply connected, as noted by Marx, who highlighted that the ruling class shapes societal ideas and perceptions. Ideology acts as an interpretive lens, influencing how people perceive reality, determine values, and consider possibilities. For instance, the U.S. ideology of individualism emphasizes personal freedoms and ties to free-market capitalism, celebrating stories of success like the \"Horatio Alger\" myth. However, this individualism is socially constructed, contrasting with the collectivism of many European societies. Stuart Hall's work demonstrates the ideological nature of communication and identity construction. In Jamaica, racial identity was shaped by a nuanced colonial system where "colored" denoted higher status than "black," reflecting proximity to "whiteness." In 1950s Britain, racial categories simplified into a binary system, erasing these distinctions, as "colored" and "black" were synonymous with \"nonwhite,\" signifying inferiority relative to "white." This example highlights how discourse shapes societal meaning and power dynamics, marking "whiteness" as a positive, aspirational standard. Ideology doesn't merely reflect dominant ideas but obscures the power relations underpinning them. Sociologist Anthony Giddens identifies three functions of ideology: it represents specific group interests as universal, masks contradictions in society, and naturalizes social relations through reification. Ideology complicates relationships by framing societal norms as inherent or unchangeable, thus concealing the systems of power that sustain them. This analysis shows how ideology mediates meaning and power, shaping social structures and individual perceptions. 1. Ideology represents particular group interests as universal - Ideology obscures power differences by presenting the interests of a dominant group as universally beneficial. For example, capitalism is framed as serving everyone, though it primarily benefits a small elite. Movements like Occupy Wall Street challenge this narrative, highlighting how the system marginalizes the majority while privileging the few. \ 0. Ideology Obscures or Denies Contradictions in Society - Ideology obscures societal contradictions by promoting myths like \"equal opportunity\" while hiding systemic inequalities. For instance, public perceptions of wealth distribution in the U.S. significantly differ from reality, with most preferring a fairer distribution. Ideology masks these disparities, aligning beliefs with equality ideals while sustaining existing inequalities. \ 0. Ideology Function to Reify Social Relations - Ideology shapes social reality by hiding the communicative construction of organizations, making them appear as fixed structures. It reinforces power imbalances, such as traditional gender roles, but is vulnerable to challenge. Historical movements, like civil rights and feminism, illustrate how dominant ideologies can be contested and transformed over time. Examining Organisational Communication Through the Lens of Power and Ideology Critical organizational communication scholars focus on the power dynamics and resistance within organizations. They explore how organizations shape employee behavior and how employees resist control. Through communication practices like stories, rituals, and metaphors, they examine how power and meaning are constructed and contested. A key concept is hegemony, where dominant groups shape reality in their favor. Michael Burawoy's study of a machine tool factory illustrates how workers, through a "game" called \"making out,\" internalize organizational goals, thus reinforcing managerial interests without direct control. This ideological process fosters employee identification with the organization, which can be exploited when companies prioritize efficiency over employee well-being. Such practices are seen as unethical, exploitative, and distorting the role of work in employees\' lives, especially in a corporate environment that demands excessive organizational identification. Critical scholars emphasize how these practices limit employee autonomy and well-being. Organisational Communication and Corporate Colonization Deetz\'s (1992a) concept of corporate colonization examines how modern corporations dominate not only the workplace but all aspects of life. He compares corporate influence to the colonization of weaker countries, where corporations shape values, identity, and meaning systems, much like how empires extend control. Deetz describes this as the \"colonization of the lifeworld,\" referring to the beliefs and values that form our sense of community. An example of this colonization is seen in education, where the classical ideal of developing critical citizens has shifted to preparing students as corporate workers. Education is increasingly seen as skills training rather than intellectual development. Additionally, the consumer model of education encourages passive consumption, with students viewing education as a product rather than an active learning process. Textbooks, often market-driven, are treated as commodities, reinforcing the corporate ideology that learning should be quick and easy. In the workplace, corporations heavily influence individual identity formation, as people\'s self-concept is often tied to their roles as workers. Corporations invest in shaping employees\' beliefs, embedding corporate philosophies into their daily lives. Deetz's theory highlights the pervasive influence of corporate ideologies, shaping not just work life but broader societal values and personal identities. Resisting Corporate Colonisation Critical scholars focus on how employees resist corporate control, highlighting both individual and collective acts of resistance. Workers often engage in subversive activities, challenging dominant corporate ideologies through subtle or \"undercover\" resistance. These actions, which may not directly oppose power, can undermine corporate colonization. Such resistance reveals organizations as contested spaces, where alternative meanings and sense-making processes can develop. Through these efforts, employees carve out alternative ways of being organizational members, challenging the corporate hegemony and suggesting potential for change in organizational dynamics. The Hidden Resistance of Flight Attendants The airline industry provides a clear example of organizational control over employees, particularly in terms of emotional labor. Flight attendants are trained to manage their emotions and display warmth and friendliness to customers, even when they are feeling frustrated or tired. This control over emotional expression can negatively affect employees\' well-being. However, employees often resist such control in subtle ways. For instance, flight attendants might smile less sincerely or challenge customers\' demands for smiles, as illustrated in a story where a flight attendant turns the smile requirement back on a passenger. This form of resistance highlights how employees can subvert corporate expectations without direct confrontation. Alexandra Murphy identifies 3 distinct forms of resistance: 1. Resistance to gender hierarchy status - Flight attendants often subvert their expected feminized, nurturing role through humor and irony. For example, they mock company rules that require them to keep pilots hydrated by making sarcastic remarks. This subtle resistance undermines the authority of the typically male pilots and challenges the company\'s guidelines. 2. Resistance to the regulation of movement and space - Murphy highlights how the airline controls flight attendants\' behavior by closely monitoring their movements during training, requiring them to live on-site with curfews and strict sign-in/sign-out procedures. Despite this, the trainees found ways to subvert the system, such as manipulating the sign-in/out process and setting up communication networks to bypass the curfew. Even as experienced flight attendants, they circumvented company surveillance by sharing tips on spotting undercover supervisors, demonstrating their resistance to organizational control. 3. Resistance to regulation of appearance - In recent years, flight attendants have faced less strict control over appearance-related factors like age and weight, but regulations on makeup, hairstyle, and shoe heel height remain. Female flight attendants often resist these expectations by prioritizing comfort and practicality, such as wearing heels only when required or applying makeup only for annual checks. While these individual acts of resistance may not drastically challenge the airline industry\'s power structure, collective resistance, such as a legal challenge to weight-based evaluations, has led to significant changes, like the discontinuation of weight tables for evaluating flight attendants. Conclusion This chapter explores the dynamics of communication, power, and resistance within organizations, emphasizing that understanding organizational communication requires addressing power relations. Critical scholars examine how organizational members negotiate and struggle over meaning, questioning who shapes dominant cultures and how those with fewer resources create alternative meanings. It highlights the interdependence of control and resistance, suggesting that organizational activities often both reproduce and challenge dominant ideologies. Through concepts like power, ideology, hegemony, and corporate colonization, the chapter illustrates how these dynamics manifest in everyday organizational life and how employees resist corporate control. **Miller Chapter 6: Critical Approaches** In Chapter 6 of \"Organizational Communication: Approaches and Processes\" by Katherine Miller, the focus shifts to **Critical Approaches** in organizational communication. This chapter delves into how power dynamics, ideologies, and hegemonic practices influence communication within organizations. Miller emphasizes the importance of understanding these elements to foster more equitable and democratic workplaces. **Foundations of Critical Approaches** Critical approaches in organizational communication are rooted in the broader tradition of critical theory, which seeks to uncover and challenge power structures that lead to oppression or domination. Miller highlights that these approaches are concerned with issues of power and control, aiming to identify and transform conditions that oppress certain groups within organizations. **Key Concepts in Critical Approaches** 1. **Power**: Central to critical approaches is the concept of power, defined as the ability to influence or control resources and decision-making processes. Power can manifest overtly, such as through hierarchical structures, or covertly, through cultural norms and ideologies that dictate acceptable behavior. 2. **Ideology**: Ideology refers to the set of beliefs and values that justify and maintain power structures within organizations. These ideologies often appear natural or common-sense, making them difficult to challenge. For example, the belief that profit maximization should be the primary goal of a company can overshadow considerations of employee well-being. 3. **Hegemony**: Hegemony involves the process by which dominant groups secure the consent of subordinate groups to maintain the status quo. This consent is often achieved through the internalization of dominant ideologies, leading employees to accept and even perpetuate their own subordination. **Forms of Control in Organizations** Miller identifies various forms of control that operate within organizations: - **Simple Control**: Direct and personal exertion of authority, such as a supervisor giving explicit instructions to an employee. - **Technological Control**: Control exerted through technological processes, like assembly lines or computer monitoring systems, which dictate the pace and manner of work. - **Bureaucratic Control**: Control through formalized rules, procedures, and job descriptions that define expected behaviors and responsibilities. - **Concertive Control**: A form of control that emerges in team-based or decentralized structures, where norms and values developed by the group dictate behavior, often leading to self-surveillance among employees. **Critical Approaches to Organizational Communication** Miller discusses several critical approaches that analyze how communication perpetuates power structures: - **Critical Feminist Approaches**: These approaches examine how organizational communication practices reinforce gender inequalities. For instance, the use of masculine language in leadership discourses can marginalize female perspectives and contributions. - **Postmodern Approaches**: Postmodernists challenge the idea of a single, overarching narrative within organizations, instead highlighting the fragmented and subjective nature of experiences. They focus on deconstructing dominant discourses to reveal marginalized voices. - **Critical Race Theory**: This perspective analyzes how organizational practices and communications perpetuate racial inequalities, advocating for the inclusion of diverse racial perspectives in organizational discourse. **Resistance and Empowerment** While critical approaches often highlight how power structures constrain individuals, they also explore avenues for resistance and empowerment: - **Resistance**: Employees may resist oppressive structures through various means, such as forming unions, engaging in collective bargaining, or using subtle tactics like humor and satire to challenge authority. - **Empowerment**: Organizations can foster empowerment by flattening hierarchies, encouraging participative decision-making, and promoting open dialogues that challenge existing power dynamics. **Applications of Critical Approaches** Miller provides examples of how critical approaches can be applied to analyze organizational phenomena: - **Workplace Surveillance**: Examining how monitoring practices can serve as tools of control, potentially infringing on employee privacy and autonomy. - **Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)**: Analyzing CSR initiatives to determine whether they genuinely address social issues or merely serve as ideological tools to enhance corporate image without substantive change. **Evaluating Critical Approaches** Miller acknowledges both the strengths and criticisms of critical approaches: - **Strengths**: By uncovering hidden power dynamics, critical approaches promote a deeper understanding of organizational life and advocate for more equitable practices. - **Criticisms**: Some argue that critical approaches can be overly deterministic, portraying individuals as passive victims of power structures without agency. Additionally, the abstract nature of critical theory can make it challenging to apply in practical contexts. **Conclusion** Chapter 6 emphasizes the importance of recognizing and addressing power dynamics within organizations. By applying critical approaches, individuals and organizations can work towards creating more just and inclusive environments that challenge oppressive structures and promote genuine participation. **Chapter 7: Socialisation Processes** In Chapter 7 of \"Organizational Communication: Approaches and Processes\" by Katherine Miller, the focus is on **Socialization Processes** within organizations. This chapter delves into how individuals assimilate into organizational cultures, the stages they undergo during this integration, and the communication dynamics that facilitate this process. **Models of Organizational Socialization** Miller begins by outlining models that describe the phases and content of socialization. Understanding these models is crucial for comprehending how newcomers transition into fully integrated organizational members. **Phases of Socialization** The socialization process is divided into distinct phases: 1. **Anticipatory Socialization**: This phase occurs before an individual joins an organization. It encompasses the experiences and information that shape expectations about organizational life. For instance, a person might develop perceptions about a company\'s culture through media, educational experiences, or conversations with current employees. 2. **Encounter**: Upon entering the organization, the individual confronts the reality of its culture, which may align or conflict with prior expectations. This phase involves learning about organizational norms, values, and required behaviors. New employees often undergo orientation programs or training sessions to facilitate this adjustment. 3. **Metamorphosis**: In this final phase, the individual becomes an accepted and active member of the organization. They internalize organizational norms and values, adjusting their behaviors and attitudes accordingly. This transformation signifies a successful integration into the organizational culture. **Content of Socialization** Miller emphasizes that socialization content can be categorized into various domains: - **Role-Related Information**: This includes the specific skills, procedures, and knowledge required to perform one\'s job effectively. For example, a new software developer must learn the coding standards and development tools used by their team. - **Cultural Information**: Beyond job-specific tasks, newcomers need to grasp the organization\'s overarching culture. This involves understanding informal norms, storytelling traditions, and shared values that define the organization\'s identity. **Communication Processes During Socialization** Effective communication is pivotal throughout the socialization process. Miller discusses several key communication-related aspects: - **Recruitment and Interviewing**: The anticipatory socialization phase often involves recruitment efforts and interviews. These interactions serve as a two-way street: organizations assess potential employees, while candidates gather information about the organization. For instance, a candidate might inquire about team dynamics during an interview to gauge the organization\'s collaborative culture. - **Information Seeking**: During the encounter phase, newcomers actively seek information to reduce uncertainty. They may ask questions, observe colleagues, or refer to organizational documents to understand their roles better. For example, a new employee might shadow a seasoned colleague to learn the nuances of client interactions. - **Role Development Processes**: Miller introduces the Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) theory to explain how roles develop through interactions between supervisors and subordinates. High-quality exchanges can lead to increased trust and responsibilities, while low-quality exchanges might result in limited opportunities. For instance, an employee who consistently delivers high-quality work may be entrusted with more significant projects over time. **Organizational Exit** The chapter also addresses the often-overlooked phase of organizational exit. Miller notes that exit can be voluntary or involuntary and has implications not only for the departing individual but also for those who remain. For example, when a team member leaves, it can disrupt group dynamics and necessitate adjustments among remaining members. **Approaches to Organizational Socialization** Miller concludes by examining how different theoretical approaches interpret socialization: - **Classical Approach**: Views socialization as a process to ensure employees adhere to established organizational structures and roles. - **Human Relations Approach**: Emphasizes the importance of social relationships and employee satisfaction during socialization. - **Human Resources Approach**: Focuses on maximizing employee potential and integrating individual goals with organizational objectives during the socialization process. - **Systems Approach**: Considers socialization as a complex, systemic process involving multiple interrelated components within the organization. - **Cultural Approach**: Highlights the transmission of organizational culture, values, and norms during socialization. - **Critical Approach**: Examines how power dynamics and ideologies influence the socialization process, potentially leading to conformity or resistance. By exploring these perspectives, Miller provides a comprehensive understanding of how individuals become integrated into organizations and the multifaceted nature of socialization processes. **Chapter 8: Decision-Making Processes** In Chapter 8 of *Organizational Communication: Approaches and Processes* by Katherine Miller, the focus is on **Decision-Making Processes** within organizations. This chapter explores various models of decision-making, the role of communication in these processes, and the factors that influence decision outcomes. Models of Decision-Making 1\. Rational Models Rational models propose that decision-making is a systematic, logical process in which individuals or groups identify problems, generate alternatives, evaluate options, and select the best solution. The classical Rational Decision-Making Model assumes complete information, a clear understanding of objectives, and the ability to evaluate all possible choices logically. This model involves the following steps: - Identifying the problem - Defining criteria for evaluating solutions - Generating a list of alternatives - Evaluating each alternative - Selecting and implementing the best alternative - Assessing the effectiveness of the decision Although widely used, the rational model has limitations, such as assuming perfect knowledge and overlooking human cognitive biases. 2\. Alternative Models Recognizing the constraints of rational models, scholars have proposed alternative approaches that consider the complexities of real-world decision-making: - **Bounded Rationality Model**: Proposed by Herbert Simon, this model suggests that decision-makers operate under cognitive and situational constraints, leading them to "satisfice" (i.e., choose a solution that is good enough rather than optimal). Decision-makers rely on heuristics and past experiences to make choices within time and resource limitations. - **Garbage Can Model**: This model, developed by Cohen, March, and Olsen, describes decision-making in organizations as chaotic and unstructured. Instead of following a linear process, decisions emerge when problems, solutions, participants, and decision opportunities randomly collide in an organization, much like garbage being tossed into a can. - **Intuitive Decision-Making**: Some decision-making processes rely on intuition rather than formal analysis. Experts often make rapid decisions based on pattern recognition, past experiences, and gut feelings rather than lengthy deliberations. Group Decision-Making While individual decision-making is important, most organizational decisions are made within groups. Group decision-making offers diverse perspectives, collective knowledge, and shared responsibility, but it also presents unique challenges. 1\. Advantages of Group Decision-Making - **Diverse Perspectives**: Groups bring multiple viewpoints and expertise to the decision-making process, leading to well-rounded solutions. - **Increased Acceptance and Commitment**: Employees are more likely to support decisions they were involved in making. - **Greater Creativity**: Brainstorming and discussion foster innovative solutions. 2\. Challenges in Group Decision-Making - **Groupthink**: A phenomenon where the desire for consensus overrides critical thinking, leading to poor decisions. Symptoms include pressure to conform, suppression of dissenting opinions, and an illusion of invulnerability. - **Conflict**: Disagreements can either enhance decision-making (constructive conflict) or derail it (destructive conflict). - **Time-Consuming Process**: Group decisions typically take longer than individual decisions due to discussion and deliberation. 3\. Strategies for Effective Group Decision-Making Organizations can enhance the quality of group decisions by: - Encouraging diverse viewpoints and constructive dissent - Using structured decision-making techniques (e.g., Delphi method, nominal group technique) - Assigning a "devil's advocate" to challenge assumptions - Establishing clear decision-making criteria Communication and Decision-Making Communication is central to decision-making, influencing how information is shared, how alternatives are evaluated, and how consensus is reached. 1\. Decision-Making Communication Networks Decision-making occurs through formal and informal communication networks within organizations. These networks influence information flow and ultimately impact the quality of decisions. Common decision-making communication structures include: - **Chain Networks**: Information flows in a linear, hierarchical manner from top management to lower-level employees. - **Wheel Networks**: A central leader communicates with all team members individually, controlling information distribution. - **All-Channel Networks**: Information flows freely among all group members, fostering collaboration and knowledge sharing. Each structure has advantages and disadvantages, with centralized networks being more efficient but less adaptable and decentralized networks fostering creativity but being potentially chaotic. 2\. Decision Pathologies Miller highlights several communication-related pitfalls that can hinder decision-making: - **Information Overload**: Too much information can overwhelm decision-makers, leading to analysis paralysis. - **Information Distortion**: Misinterpretation or manipulation of information can skew decisions. - **Filtering**: Employees may selectively share information based on biases, power dynamics, or organizational politics. - **Silence and Non-Participation**: Employees may withhold their opinions due to fear of repercussions or lack of confidence. Participative Decision-Making (PDM) Participative Decision-Making (PDM) involves employees in the decision-making process, leading to greater job satisfaction, motivation, and better decision outcomes. 1\. Benefits of PDM - Enhances employee commitment and ownership of decisions - Encourages innovation and problem-solving - Improves job satisfaction and reduces resistance to change 2\. Challenges of PDM - Time-consuming process due to extensive discussions - Potential conflict between managerial control and employee input - Risk of decision paralysis if consensus is difficult to achieve Organizations implement PDM through various mechanisms, including team-based decision-making, quality circles, and open-door policies. Organizational Approaches to Decision-Making Miller explores how different organizational theories interpret decision-making: 1\. Classical Approach - Views decision-making as a rational, top-down process. - Emphasizes efficiency and control, with decisions made by upper management. 2\. Human Relations Approach - Recognizes the importance of employee participation in decision-making. - Suggests that involvement leads to increased job satisfaction and motivation. 3\. Human Resources Approach - Encourages full participation from employees at all levels. - Values employees as key contributors to decision-making, aiming to maximize their potential. 4\. Systems Approach - Views decision-making as an interdependent and dynamic process influenced by various internal and external factors. - Emphasizes feedback loops and continuous learning. 5\. Cultural Approach - Highlights the role of organizational culture in shaping decision-making practices. - Suggests that shared values, norms, and rituals influence how decisions are made and implemented. 6\. Critical Approach - Examines how power structures and ideologies shape decision-making. - Argues that decision-making processes often reinforce existing power dynamics, marginalizing certain groups. Conclusion Chapter 8 emphasizes that decision-making is a complex, multi-faceted process influenced by organizational structure, communication patterns, and power dynamics. While rational models offer a structured approach, alternative models recognize the limitations of human cognition and organizational complexity. Effective communication is essential for sound decision-making, and participative approaches can enhance both decision quality and employee engagement. By understanding these factors, organizations can create more effective and inclusive decision-making processes. **Chapter 9: Conflict Management Processes** In Chapter 9 of *Organizational Communication: Approaches and Processes* by Katherine Miller, the focus is on **Conflict Management Processes** within organizations. This chapter explores the nature of organizational conflict, various conflict management styles, the role of communication in conflict resolution, and how different organizational perspectives interpret conflict. Understanding Organizational Conflict Conflict in organizations is inevitable due to differences in goals, values, and perspectives. It can be constructive or destructive depending on how it is managed. Miller defines conflict as \"the interaction of interdependent people who perceive incompatible goals and interference from each other in achieving those goals.\" 1\. Levels of Conflict Conflict occurs at various levels in an organization: - **Interpersonal Conflict**: Arises between individuals due to personality differences, competition, or misunderstandings. - **Intergroup Conflict**: Occurs between teams, departments, or groups with competing interests or objectives. - **Inter-organizational Conflict**: Happens between organizations, often due to market competition, resource allocation, or contractual disputes. 2\. Phases of Conflict Miller outlines the stages that conflicts typically go through: - **Latent Conflict**: Potential for conflict exists due to differing needs or values. - **Perceived Conflict**: One or more parties recognize the existence of conflict. - **Felt Conflict**: Emotional involvement intensifies as individuals start to personalize the conflict. - **Manifest Conflict**: Conflict is expressed through verbal or nonverbal actions. - **Conflict Aftermath**: Outcomes of conflict impact future interactions and relationships. Conflict Management Styles Individuals and organizations adopt different strategies for handling conflict. The **Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)** identifies five common conflict management styles based on levels of assertiveness and cooperativeness: 1\. Avoidance (Low Assertiveness, Low Cooperativeness) - Ignoring or withdrawing from the conflict. - Useful when the issue is trivial or when emotions need time to cool. - Risks unresolved tensions leading to larger conflicts. 2\. Accommodation (Low Assertiveness, High Cooperativeness) - One party yields to the other's concerns to maintain harmony. - Effective when preserving relationships is more important than the issue itself. - Can lead to resentment if overused. 3\. Competition (High Assertiveness, Low Cooperativeness) - One party pursues their goals at the expense of the other. - Useful in emergencies or when a clear, strong stance is required. - Risks damaging relationships and fostering hostility. 4\. Compromise (Moderate Assertiveness, Moderate Cooperativeness) - Each party gives up something to reach a mutually acceptable solution. - Balances cooperation and assertiveness but may lead to suboptimal outcomes. 5\. Collaboration (High Assertiveness, High Cooperativeness) - Parties work together to find a win-win solution that satisfies all needs. - Ideal for complex issues requiring creative problem-solving. - Requires time, effort, and trust between parties. Communication and Conflict Resolution Effective communication is key to resolving conflicts. The way conflicts are framed, discussed, and negotiated influences their resolution. 1\. Communication Strategies in Conflict - **Clear and Open Dialogue**: Ensures all perspectives are heard and understood. - **Active Listening**: Encourages mutual understanding and de-escalates tension. - **Framing and Reframing**: Helps shift perspectives to focus on solutions rather than blame. - **Third-Party Mediation**: Neutral facilitators help resolve disputes through structured discussion. 2\. Bargaining and Negotiation Organizations often use **bargaining** and **negotiation** to resolve conflicts: - **Distributive Bargaining**: A win-lose approach where one party gains at the other's expense (zero-sum game). - **Integrative Bargaining**: A win-win approach that seeks mutually beneficial solutions through collaboration. Organizational Approaches to Conflict Miller

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