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STS-GENED7 CHAPTER 2: INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS THAT DEFINED SOCIETY The term "intellectual revolution" refers to a period in which people have extensively embraced and accepted paradigm shifts or changes in scientific views (Hintay, 2018). The events of the Intellectual Revolution demonstrated how...

STS-GENED7 CHAPTER 2: INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS THAT DEFINED SOCIETY The term "intellectual revolution" refers to a period in which people have extensively embraced and accepted paradigm shifts or changes in scientific views (Hintay, 2018). The events of the Intellectual Revolution demonstrated how science and technology revolutionized society. To better comprehend what happened during the scientific revolution, it's vital to look at the various individuals whose ideas challenged and shook the prevalent beliefs and concepts of the day - the reality of their time. Curiosity, critical thinking, and innovation motivate scientists to study the physical and natural world throughout history. Their enthusiasm for science stems from a profound desire to learn and discover new things. Nicolaus Copernicus: COPERNICAN REVOLUTION People used to wonder what caused the world to exist. celestial bodies-days and nights, Stars, moons, and planets The development of the telescope allowed people to look out into space. It piqued their interest in space, but more significantly, it piqued their interest in learning more about it. what was out there in reality. Many Greek philosophers and thinkers wrote about planets in an effort to explain heavenly bodies' movements and impact on the world as they knew it. Many of these philosophers agreed that planets rotated in a circular motion, which caused days and nights, among other things. Claudius Ptolemy, a great philosopher and astronomer, claimed that the planets, as well as the sun and moon, revolved around the Earth in a circular motion. The revolution of the sun and moon explained the existence of days and nights. Geocentrism is the belief that the Earth is the center of the universe. Ptolemy's geocentric model was universally accepted and considered one of the most important discoveries of the period. Nicolaus Copernicus, a Polish mathematician and astronomer, disputed the Ptolemaic model in the 16th century. He proposed a new theory known as heliocentrism, which claimed that the sun, not the Earth, was the center of the Solar System. The people initially opposed this concept. Many people were shocked since their religious beliefs taught them that the Earth came first, before everything else. Copernicus was also punished as a heretic since his theories contradicted religious doctrine. Astronomers noticed after some time that the Copernican model simplified planet orbits. It also addressed issues that the geocentric model couldn't explain. Other works that backed up this paradigm began to appear as well. It was eventually accepted by the public during the so-called "Birth of Modern Astronomy" period. This period saw the start of the scientific revolution, which resulted in a shift in society's attitudes and ideas. it was considered heretical at the time and was therefore forbidden to be taught to Catholics. The Copernican paradigm was outlawed by the Catholic Church, and Rome ignored it for the rest of the 16th century. Charles Darwin: DARWINIAN REVOLUTION -During his time at Shrewsbury School, he developed an interest in natural history. He attended the top schools, but he was considered an average student. He struggled in his medical and ministry studies, which his father forced upon him. When one of Darwin's instructors suggested that he undertake a five-year journey across the HMS Beagle on the Islands of Galapagos, his life altered forever. Charles Darwin's theory of evolution is well-known. He altered our perceptions of the world's origins and evolution. Darwin was a genius who comes from a long line of intelligent and rich ancestors (Johnson, 2012). Darwin's book The Origin of Species was published in 1589. This book is regarded as one of the most important works in the field of science. In order to demonstrate his theory with compelling evidence, Darwin gathered a large amount of material. His book included evidence of how species evolved over time, as well as features and adaptations that distinguish species. The Descent of Man was both amazing and divisive. He popularized the concept of all organic life, including humans, falling under the evolutionary umbrella. This has displaced the popular belief in a religious or biblical design that places humans in a special position as God's creations. Darwin's theory of evolution threw doubt on this belief. Darwin's accomplishments were so varied that it's helpful to separate two domains in which he made significant contributions: evolutionary biology and science philosophy. More than these publications, what made Darwin genuinely exceptional was his fearlessness in confronting religious and nonscientific notions that were prevalent at the time. Sigmund Freud: FREUDIAN REVOLUTION In the subject of psychology Sigmund Freud is a well-known figure. He is a towering literary figure and a gifted communicator who contributed to raising the civilized world's awareness of psychological matters (Rosenfels, 1980). Freud also made a significant contribution to science by developing an important observational method for gathering reliable data in order to explore the inner life of humans. This strategy is sometimes referred to as the psychoanalytic method. This method's main core version was developed by the scientific hypothesis he formulated. For Freud, this method of psychoanalysis is a scientific way to study human mind and neurotic illness. Sigmund Freud was not a conventional thinker. His psychoanalytic method was demonstrated to be useful in understanding neurological disorders that medicine could not understand at the time. His approach was unconventional, emphasizing on human sexuality and man's wicked nature. Psychoanalysis is a branch of psychology that aims to understand human behavior. According to Freud's thesis, there are numerous conscious and unconscious influences that might impact one's behavior and feelings. He also claimed that personality is the result of three opposing forces: the id, the ego, and the superego. Id is a biological component that causes a variety of desires and urges. It is based on the pleasure principle and focuses on the fulfilment of basic necessities such as food and sex. Ego serves as a bridge between the individual's wants and the real world, attempting to reduce tension until a suitable setting is found. It is the determining factor in one's personality. Superego is the moral arm of personality. It is the “conscience” of personality. It represents the traditional rules, values, and ideas of the society. Information Revolution The earliest writing system, Sumerian pictographs, marked the beginning of the Information Revolution. Then there's Gutenberg's printing press, which was invented in 1455. The typewriter and telegraph became popular. Today, technology is widely employed, making it easier to communicate, disseminate, and preserve information thanks to the internet. The Information/Digital Revolution is a paradigm transition from the mechanical to the digital age that affects many facets of life with the primary goal of increasing efficiency. See the table below to see the changes brought by the information revolution. Creative destruction is a term invented by Joseph Schumpeter to describe a process in which something new destroys what came before, a shift from the old to the new. Schumpeter characterizes it as "the process of industrial mutation that ceaselessly revolutionizes the economic structure from inside, incessantly destroying the old one, incessantly establishing a new one" in his book "Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy." the emergence of knowledge industries, telecommunications, software development, medical equipment and pharmaceutical research, and business innovators, to mention a few, are examples of industries that heavily rely on technology. Their competitive edge stems from the fact that they hire inventive and creative people that help them establish their firm in sectors that are better suited to information work. Employment Shift the manual labor force is dwindling as jobs increasingly demand knowledge and creativity as a result of advances in digital technology. In Education Shift, altering teaching methods, tactics, and content to focus more on critical reasoning abilities so that graduates can better synthesis large amounts of data and become more competitive in the information field. Political Shift, there is a transformation in the manner in which governments interact and provide services to the citizens, manage government supply chains, conduct internal government processes and control the content and flow of information in society. There was decentralization of function from exclusive sovereignty state to supranational governments (governments made up of different sovereign states) and intergovernmental organizations. Development of Science in Mesoamerica Mesoamerica encompasses all of Central America, from southern Mexico to the South American border. Prior to the entrance of European colonizers, the Mesoamerican region was undeniably rich in culture and knowledge. A. Mayan Civilization The Mayan Civilization is a well-known civilization that existed for about 2,000 years. Listed here are their contributions: 1.These individuals are well-known for their contributions to astronomy. Their advanced knowledge of astronomy was utilized into their temples and other holy monuments. This enables people to observe the stars from their temples. The Sun is located at the position of the pyramid in Chichen Itza, Mexico, during the fall and spring equinoxes, for example. 2. Mayan knowledge and understanding of celestial bodies were sophisticated for their time, as proven by their ability to forecast eclipses and plant and harvest utilizing astrological cycles. 3. The Mayans are also noted for having two complex calendar systems to keep track of time. These calendars were extremely valuable in their daily lives, especially for arranging activities and keeping track of religious and cultural celebrations. The Haab cycle is 365 days, and approximates the solar year. The Haab is a nineteen month calendar. The Haab is composed of 18 months made of 20 days, and one month, made of 5 days. This 5-day month is called "Wayeb." Thus, 18 x 20 + 5 = 365 days. This image shows the hieroglyphs corresponding to the nineteen months of the Haab calendar. The Maya represented some of these months using more than one glyph. These glyphs are referred to as "variants." Variants of the same glyph are framed in a turquoise background. The Maya sacred calendar is called Tzolk’in in Yucatec Mayan and Chol Q’ij in K’iche’ Mayan. This calendar is not divided into months. Instead, it is made from a succession of 20 day glyphs in combination with the numbers 1 to 13, and produces 260 unique days. Multiplying 20 x 13 equals 260 days. This image illustrates how the numbers 1 to 13, cycle through the 20 glyphs to form dates in the Tzolk’in calendar. Any such combination, such as 1 Imix’, repeats only after 260 days have passed. The length of the Tzolk’in matches nine cycles of the Moon and the gestational period of humans. The Tzolk’in is also related to the movements of the zenith Sun and the growing cycle of corn. 4. The Mayans also perfected the art of raising various crops and constructing magnificent cities with simple machines and equipment. They constructed a hydraulics system with complex waterways to supply water to several towns. 5. They used a variety of tools and adapted to new developments, particularly in the arts. Mayans created looms for weaving textiles and a rainbow of dazzling colors using mica, a mineral. 6. They are also thought to be among the first to manufacture rubber products, having done so 3,000 years before Goodyear got his patent in 1844. 7. One of Mesoamerica's most scientifically advanced societies. They are also noted for being one of the world's first civilizations to adopt the Mayan hieroglyphics as a writing system. Mayan inscriptions have been discovered on stelae (standing stone slabs), stone lintels, art, and ceramics, as well as the few remaining Mayan books, or codices. More than 800 letters make up the Mayan writing system, including hieroglyphics and phonetic marks that represent syllables. The hieroglyphic signs are pictorial—that is, they are recognized representations of real objects—and they represent animals, humans, and everyday objects. 8. They were also mathematicians, and they devised a numbering system based on the number 20. They also invented the concepts of zero and positional value independently of the Romans. B. INCA CIVILIZATION In Mesoamerica, the Inca Civilization is equally well-known. Considering their limits as an ancient society, the Incas developed excellent scientific ideas. They developed the following scientific theories and technologies to assist them in their daily lives. These are the contributions of Inca Civilization: 1.stone-paved roads; 2. stone structures that have withstood earthquakes and other disasters; 3. an irrigation system and technology for storing water for their crops to flourish on all sorts of terrain; 4. a 12-month calendar to commemorate religious festivals and prepare for planting season; 5. the first suspension bridge; 6. quipu, a system of knotted ropes used to store records that only professionals can decipher; and 7. Inca textiles, as cloth was a cherished aesthetic achievement. C. AZTEC CIVILIZATION The Aztec Civilization produced significant contributions to science and technology, as well as to society as a whole, their contributions are the following: 1. Education is required. The Aztecs place a high emphasis on education, which is why all of their children, regardless of social class, gender, or age, are required to attend school. It is a form of universal or inclusive education from the beginning. 2. Chocolates. During their time in Mexico, the Aztecs invented chocolate. It was utilized as currency in Mayan society. Cacao beans were highly prized by the Aztecs, who used them to pay homage to their gods. 3. Antispasmodic medication. They employed an antispasmodic drug that could benefit during surgery by preventing muscular spasms and relaxing muscles. Antispasmodic medication. medicine that could prevent muscle spasms and relax muscles, which may have been helpful during surgery. The Passion flower was used for this purpose, a flower which still grows in Mexico today. 4. Chinampa. It's an Aztec agricultural farming technique in which the land was divided into rectangular portions and encircled by canals. 5. Aztec Calendar. They were able to organize their activities, ceremonies, and planting season as a result of this. 6. The canoe was invented. A small, narrow boat used to sail over waterways. Development of Science in Asia Asia is the world's largest continent and the birthplace of numerous ancient civilizations. It hosts a wide range of cultural, economic, scientific, and political events for people of all ages. Great civilizations such as India, China, and the Middle East have excelled in the fields of science, technology, and mathematics. In terms of their contributions to the growth of knowledge during their period, these civilizations were unrivaled. A. INDIA India is a massive peninsula surrounded on three sides by immense bodies of water and reinforced on the north by massive mountains. Indians came up with a variety of innovative concepts and technology that they might employ in their daily lives. Following are their contributions: 1. They are well-known for their iron production and metallurgical works. Their iron steel is regarded as the best and most valuable in the entire Roman Empire. 2. In the field of medicine, India is well-known. Ayurveda, a system of traditional medicine that dates back to before 2500 BC in ancient India, is still used as an alternative medicine. 3. In the realm of astronomy, ancient India is equally noteworthy. They came up with theories about the universe's structure, the Earth's spherical self-supporting shape, and the 360-day year divided into 12 equal sections of 30 days each. 4. Mathematics were also well-known in ancient India. The Indus Valley Civilization left the oldest signs of mathematical understanding in the Indian subcontinent. The Mohenjodaro ruler was created by the people of this civilization who attempted to standardize length measuring to a high degree of accuracy. 5. In his Aryabhatiya, Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476-550) introduced a number of trigonometric functions, tables, and procedures, as well as algebraic algorithms. B. CHINA China is one of the world's oldest civilizations, with significant contributions to medicine, astronomy, physics, mathematics, the arts, philosophy, and music, among other fields. Many of China's neighbors, including Korea, Japan, the Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, and other countries along the old Silk Road, have benefited tremendously from Chinese civilization. The following are the contributions of China: 1. Traditional Chinese remedies are well-known, as they are the result of centuries of Chinese people's experiences and discoveries. They discovered a variety of medicinal characteristics and applications for diverse plants and animals in the treatment of human illnesses. Acupuncture is a good illustration of this. 2. In terms of technology, the Chinese are known for creating a wide range of tools. Compass, papermaking, gunpowder, and printing equipment were among the notable discoveries and technologies of Chinese civilizations, which were first known in the West by the end of the Middle Ages. They also invented a variety of other equipment, such as the iron plough, wheelbarrow, and propeller, to name a few. They also designed various bridge models, invented the first seismological detector, and constructed a dry dock facility. seismological detector dry dock facility 3. Chinese astronomers also made important records on supernovas, lunar and solar eclipses, and comets, which were meticulously recorded and maintained in order to better comprehend the heavenly bodies and their consequences on our planet. 4. In seismology, the Chinese are well-known. This made them more prepared in the event of a natural disaster. Development of Science in Middle East Countries Muslims occupy the majority of Middle Eastern countries. With the advent of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship lasted until the 13th century, known as the Golden Age of Islam. The Muslims' intellectualization was aided by the common language of Arabic, access to Greek books from the Byzantine Empire, and their proximity to India. Unlike the Greeks, however, Muslim scientists placed a higher priority on science experiments than simple thinking experiments. This resulted in the development of the scientific method in the Muslim world, which made great advancements by employing tests to discern between competing scientific ideas within a broadly empirical framework. Famous Muslim scientists, contribute the following: 1. Ibn al-Haytham is known as the "Father of Optics" for his empirical demonstration of the light intromission theory. 2. The notion of algorithm is named after Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the first word in one of his books. Although the Arabic Numeral System originated in India, Muslim mathematicians made significant improvements to the system, including the introduction of decimal point notation. 3. Jabir ibn Hayyan is known as the "Father of Chemistry." 4. Ibn Sina was the first physician to perform clinical trials and pioneered the field of experimental medicine. The Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine, two of his most famous medical works, were utilized as standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and Europe during the 17th century. The discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases and the creation of clinical pharmacology are just two of his numerous accomplishments. Development of Science in Africa Natural and mineral resources abound throughout Africa. Long before the Europeans colonized this region of the world, science flourished. The history of science and mathematics reveals that, like other ancient civilizations, Africa's early civilizations produced knowledge. The following are the most notable contributions of Africa: 1. In the domains of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine, the Ancient Egyptian civilization produced major contributions and advancements. The development of geometry, for example, sprang from the need to preserve the layout and ownership of Egyptian farmlands along the Nile River. 2. Egypt was noted for being a hub of alchemy, the medieval predecessor of chemistry. They attempted to research human anatomy and pharmacology, as well as apply crucial components for disease therapy such as inspection, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis. These elements bore striking resemblances to the basic empirical approach of scientific research. 3. In the African continent, astronomy was well-known. Documents demonstrate that Africans utilized a variety of calendars, including lunar, solar, and stellar calendars, or a combination of the three. 4. In ancient times, metallurgy was also known in African countries. They developed metal implements for use in their houses, agriculture, and the construction of their spectacular structures. 5. Mathematics was also known to play an important role in the lives of early Africans. The Lebombo Bone, found in the mountains between Swaziland and South Africa, is thought to be the oldest known mathematical artefact, dating back to 35,000 BCE. It could have been a tool for multiplication, division, and elementary arithmetic calculations, or a six-month lunar calendar.