Midterm Soc Notes (Ch1-Ch5) PDF

Chapter One: The Sociological Perspective What is sociology? Sociology is the scientific study of society and human behavior Focus: Examines how individuals interact with one another, how societies are organized, and how cultural norms influence behavior. The Sociological Perspective:...

Chapter One: The Sociological Perspective What is sociology? Sociology is the scientific study of society and human behavior Focus: Examines how individuals interact with one another, how societies are organized, and how cultural norms influence behavior. The Sociological Perspective: Definition: understanding human behavior by placing it within its broader social context Stresses the social contexts in which people live–examines how these contexts influence people’s lives Sociological perspective asks how groups influence people, especially how people are influenced by their society ○ Society is a group of people who share a culture and territory To find out why people do what they do, sociologists look at social location ○ Social location is the group memberships that people have because of their location in history and society Sociologists look at how jobs, income, education, gender, race-ethnicity, and age affect people’s ideas and behavior Sociological Perspective (or imagination) opens a window onto unfamiliar worlds and offers a fresh look at familiar ones Enables you to gain a new perception of social life History and biology are essential for the sociological perspective: C Wright Mills (1995) – “the sociological perspective enables us to grasp the connection between history and biography” ○ refers to the ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and larger social influences. ○ “History” in quote meant that each society is located in a broad stream of events, which gives each society specific characteristics (ex roles of gender) ○ “Biography” in quote referred to experiences within a specific historical setting that gives you your orientations to life ( external influences, your experiences, become a part of your thinking and motivation) ○ Society affects us; it is not instincts that make us the way we are, it is society Sociology and the other sciences: Science: The application of systematic methods to obtain knowledge and the knowledge obtained by those methods  Natural sciences: the intellectual and academic disciplines designed to comprehend, explain, and predict events in our natural environment Social sciences: The intellectual and academic disciplines designed to understand the social world objectively by means of controlled and repeated observations Goals of science: First- explain why something happens Second- make generalizations (a statement that goes beyond the individual case and is applied to a broader group or situation). To do this, sociologists look for patterns of recurring events or characteristics Third- predict, specify in the light of current knowledge what will happen in the future Goals are achieved through systematic research Origins of Sociology; Tradition to Max Weber Sociology emerged about the middle of the 1800s, when social observers began to use scientific methods to test their ideas 3 main events set stage for the challenge to tradition and emergence of sociology ○ 1. Social upheaval of the industrial revolution- people moved to cities in search of work because factories were replacing agriculture workers City’s greeting = harsh: miserable pay, long hours, and dangerous work. Children worked to help parents. Going someplace new, world turned upside down, people could no longer count on tradition to provide the answers to the difficult questions of life ○ 2. Social upheaval of political revolution– American and French revolution swept away existing social orders. A new social order challenged tradition even further People were willing to die for the idea that each person possesses inalienable rights, forcing many traditional, western monarchies to give way to more democratic forms of government Before tradition had ruled and “why” questions were always answered with “it has always been done this way” ○ 3. Imperialism (empire building) of the time As europeans conquered many countries, new colonies stretched across the world, making them exposed to new cultures Questions about why cultures differed arose These 3 main events led to questioning of traditional answers Scientific method: the use of objective, systematic observations to test theories ○ Because traditional answers were failing, scientific method was applied to questions about social life → resulted in birth of sociology  ○ Scientific method + social life = sociology Positivism: the application of the scientific approach to the social world Auguste Comte: suggested that we apply scientific method to the social world (positivism) ○ Founded the term “sociology” = “the study of society” ○ Stated that the purpose of this new science would not only be to discover social principles but also to apply them to social reform Herbert Spencer: sometimes called the second founder of sociology (Social Darwinism) ○ Spencer strongly disagreed with Auguste Comte's notion that sociologists should play an active role in guiding social reform. He believed that social reform should occur naturally and spontaneously through the evolution of society, rather than being directed by sociologists. ○ Said that sociologists should not guide social reform because it would interfere with the natural process that improves societies ○ Coined the term “survival of the fittest” → thought that helping the poor was wrong, just helped the “less fit” survive Karl Marx: believed that the roots of human misery lay in class conflict ○ Class conflict = Marx’s term for the struggle between capitalists and workers ○ Believed that people should try to change society; proposal was radical → revolution ○ Said that society is made up of two social classes and are natural enemies of one another: Bourgeoisie = Marx’s term for capitalists, those who own the means of production (money, land, factories, and machines) and the proletariat (exploited workers who do not own the means of production) Emile Durkheim: professional goal was to get sociology recognized as a as a separate academic discipline ○ Second goal was to show how social forces affect people’s behavior ○ Identified social integration: the degree to which people are tied to their social groups through shared values and social bonds, also known as social cohesion Max Weber: one of the most influential of all sociologists ○ Theorized that the Roman Catholic belief system encouraged followers to hold on to their traditional ways of life and Protestant belief system encouraged its members to embrace change ○ Calvinists belief that they would know if they were saved from hell due to god on “judgment day” meant they would have to work towards being saved/→ led to people saving money and investing it because financial  success was a sign of approval from god→ said to have brought about the birth of capitalism ○ ^^called that self-denying approach to life the “protestant ethic” ○ Called the desire to invest capital to make more money the “spirit of capitalism” ○ Concluded that religion was a key factor in capitalism ○ Used cross-cultural and historical materials to trace the causes of social change and to determine how social groups affect people’s orientations to life ○ Said that sociology should be value free: the view that a sociologists’s personal values or beliefs should not influence social research ○ Values: the standards by which people define what is desirable or undesirable, superior or inferior, good/bad, beautiful/ugly ○ Replication: the repetition of a study in order to test its findings Sociology in North America Took root at the University of Kansas in 1890; avatar spreading to a select amount of universities, sociology spread rapidly throughout North America Other universities were slow to adopt sociology University of Chicago initially dominated North American sociology Males dominated study of sociology but most early female sociologists viewed sociology as a path to social reform→ they focused on ways to improve society, integrate immigrants into society, and improve conditions of workers As sociology spread in North America, purpose was questioned ○ Should it be to reform society or to do objective research on society? Harriet Martineau: provides an example of how contributions of early female sociologists were ignored ○ Known primarily for translating Comte’s ideas into english ○ Sexism was normal W. E. B. Du Bois: studied relations between African Americans and Whites. ○ Racism was normalized Jane Addams: leader in women’s rights suffrage + worked on behalf of poor immigrants + founded hull house→ center to help immigrants ○ strove to bridge the gap between the powerful and the powerless Basic (pure) sociology: sociological research for the purpose of making discoveries about life in human groups, not for making changes in those groups Applied sociology: the use of sociology to solve problems—from the micro level of classroom interaction and family relationships to the macro level of crime and pollution  Public sociology: applying sociology for the public good; especially the use of the sociological perspective (how things are related to one another) to guide politicians and policy makers Theoretical perspectives in sociology (symbolic interactionism, functional analysis, and conflict theory) Theory: a general statement about how some parts of the world fit together and how they work; an explanation of how two or more facts are related to one another Symbolic interactionism: a theoretical perspective in which society is viewed as composed of symbols that people use to establish meaning, develop their views of the world, and communicate with one another ○ George Herbert Mead + Charles Horton Cooley = founders of symbolic interactionism ○ Symbols define our relationships (without symbols we would not have aunts, uncles, teachers, employers, etc..) Symbols tell us how we are related to people Without them, we would not know whom we owe respect and obligations to or from whom we can expect privileges → two elements that lie at the essence of human relationships ○ Symbolic interactionists analyze how social life depends on the ways we define ourselves and others. They study face-to-face interaction, examining how people make sense out of life and their place in it. ○ Applying symbolic interactionism: meaning of marriage, divorce, parenthood, love, have all evolved as the times have (ex: divorce has gone up as we are in less traditional times) Functional analysis: society is viewed as composed of various parts, each with a function that, when fulfilled, contributes to society’s equilibrium; also known as functionalism and structural functionalism ○ Founded by William James ○ Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim all viewed society like this ○ Robert Meron was a major advocate for functionalism ○ Functions help keep a group (society, social system) in balance ○ Dysfunctions are harmful consequences of people’s actions ○ Functions can be either manifest or latent  If an action is intended to help some part of a system, it is a manifest function. Merton pointed out that people’s actions can also have latent functions; that is, they can have unintended consequences that help a system adjust. Conflict theory: society is viewed as composed of groups that are competing for scarce resources ○ If you look at the surface, you might see cooperation, but scratch that surface and you will find a struggle for power. ○ Karl Marx = the founder of conflict theory ○ Struggle is between bourgeoisie, the small group of capitalists who own the means to produce wealth, and the proletariat, the mass of workers who are exploited by the bourgeoisie ○ ^^ that was before, now, this theory can be seen in small groups and society as well. There is a constant struggle to determine who has authority, dominance and control ○ conflict is most likely to develop among people who are in close relationships. ○ ways to distribute power and privilege, responsibilities and rewards. Any change in this arrangement can lead to hurt feelings, resentment, and conflict. ○ Applying conflict theory: As industrialization transformed the world, women did not need men anymore and therefore divorce rates got higher From the conflict perspective, then, our high divorce rate does not mean that marriage has weakened but, rather, that women are making headway in their historical struggle with men. Macro-level analysis: an examination of large-scale patterns of society; such as how Wall Street and the political establishment are interrelated Micro-level analysis: an examination of small-scale patterns of society; such as how the members of a group interact Social interaction: one person’s actions influencing someone else; usually refers to what people do when they are in one another’s presence, but also includes communications at a distance Globalization: the growing interconnections among nations due to the expansion of capitalism; breaking down of national boundaries because of advances in communications, trade, and travel. ○ Lots of sociological theories focus on the US (bc US dominates sociology) ; globalization is meant to broaden our horizons, directing us to consider universal principles and issues  ○ ​research versus reform is a tension inherent in sociology, with scholars balancing the pursuit of objective research with the desire for social transformation. Globalization, on the other hand, presents new opportunities and challenges for sociologists to study and understand social phenomena in a global context and address global social issues. Both factors significantly influence the direction and focus of sociology as a discipline. Globalization of capitalism: capitalism (investing to make profits within a rational system) becoming the globe’s dominant economic systems Chapter Two: Culture Culture, orientations to life, and practicing cultural relativism: Culture: The language, beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, and even material objects that characterize a group and are passed from one generation to the next Material Culture: The material objects that distinguish a group of people, such as their art, buildings, weapons, utensils, machines, hairstyles, clothing, jewelry Nonmaterial culture: A group’s ways of thinking (including its beliefs, values, and other assumptions about the world) and doing (its common patterns of behavior, including language and other forms of interaction); also called symbolic culture Culture shock: the disorientation that people experience when they come in contact with a fundamentally different culture and can no longer depend on their taken-for-granted assumptions about life Ethnocentrism: the use of one’s own culture as a yardstick for judging the ways of other individuals or societies, generally leading to a negative evaluation of their values, norms, and behaviors ○ Can lead to discrimination against people whose ways differ from ours Cultural relativism: not judging a culture but trying to understand it on its own terms ○ Does not suggest that you cannot have your own reservations, just means you should try to understand the culture in its context ○ Critics say it can lead to moral relativism: where any behavior can be justified based on cultural differences. They contend that certain universal principles, such as human rights, should be upheld regardless of cultural variation.  ○ Robert Edgerton's viewpoint suggests that while cultural diversity should be celebrated and understood within its own context, it is important to critically evaluate cultural practices and their impact on individuals' lives. ○ Standards of beauty differ + is bullfighting cruel? Components of symbolic culture: gestures, langage, values, norms, sanctions, folkways, mores, taboos + Sapir-Whorf hypothesis Symbolic culture: another term for nonmaterial culture Symbol: something to which people attach meaning and then use to communicate with one another Gestures: ways in which people use their bodies to communicate with one another Language: a system of symbols that can be combined in an infinite number of ways and can represent not only objects but also abstract thought ; primary way in which people communicate with one another ○ Allows cumulative human experience ○ Provides social or shared past ○ Provides social or shared future ○ Allows shared perspectives ○ Allows complex, shared, goal-directed behavior Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf’s hypothesis that language creates ways of thinking and perceiving ○ Challenges common sense as it indicates that rather than objects and events forcing themselves onto our consciousness, it is language that does this ○ language either determines or influences one's thought. In other words, people who speak different languages see the world differently, based on the language they use to describe it. Values: the standards by which people define what is desirable or undesirable, superior or inferior good or bad, beautiful or ugly Norms: expectations of “right” behavior Sanctions: either expressions of approval given to people for following norms or expressions of disapproval for violating them ○ Positive sanctions: a reward or positive reaction for following norms, ranging from a smile to a material reward ○ Negative sanctions: an expression of disapproval for breaking a norm, ranging from a mild, informal reaction such as a frown to a formal reaction such as a prize or a prison sentence  Moral holidays: locations where norms are expected to be broken Folkways: norms that are not strictly enforced (a person passing you on right side of the sidewalk will not be reprimanded) Mores: norms that are strictly enforced because they are thought essential to core values or the wellbeing of the group ( a killer, for example, violates this) ○ highly important ○ closely related to the moral values and ethics of a particular culture. ○ They are the fundamental rules and expectations that guide and regulate behavior within a society. Taboo: refers to a norm so strongly ingrained that the thought of this violation is greeted with revulsion (ex: humans eating flesh → would result in negative, severe sanctions) Subcultures vs. countercultures Subculture: The values and related behaviors of a group that distinguish its members from the larger culture; a world within a world ○ smaller cultural groups within society that share distinct characteristics or interests while coexisting with the dominant culture Counterculture: a group whose values, beliefs, norms, and related behaviors place its members in opposition to the broader culture ○ actively challenge and oppose the dominant culture's values and norms in pursuit of alternative social or cultural systems. Major U.S. values, value clusters, value contradictions, value clashes, how values are lenses of perception, ideal vs. real culture Pluralistic society: a society made up of many different groups Core values: the values that are central to a group, those around which a group builds a common identity U.S. Values: ○ Achievement and success ○ Individualism ○ Hard work ○ Efficiency and practicality ○ Science and technology ○ Material comfort ○ Freedom ○ Democracy ○ Equality ○ Group superiority  ○ Education ○ Religiosity ○ Romantic love Value clusters: values that together form a larger whole Value contradiction: Values that contradict one another; to follow the ne means to come into conflict with the other Value cluster of 4 interrelated core values: ○ Leisure ○ Self-fulfillment ○ Physical fitness ○ Youthfulness Ideal culture: a people’s ideal values and norms; the goals held out for them ○ What a group considers worth aiming for Real culture: the norms and values that people actually follow; as opposed to ideal culture ○ What people actually do Cultural universal: a value, norm, or other cultural trait that is found in every group ○ Some activities are universal − Courtship, Marriage, Funerals, Games ○ Present in all cultures, but specific customs differ from one group to another Sociobiologists consider genes to be an inadequate explanation of human behavior Sociobiology: (neo-darwinism/ evolutionary psychology)a framework of thought in which a human behavior is considered to be the result of natural selection and biological factors: a fundamental cause of human behavior Technology changes culture + cultural lag, cultural leveling Technology: can be equated with tools. In a broader sense, technology also includes the skills or procedures necessary to make and use those tools. New technology: refers to an emerging technology that has a significant impact on social life. ○ can lead to cultural changes such as the adoption of new norms and practices, shifts in values and beliefs, and the emergence of new cultural forms.  Cultural lag: Ogburn’s term for human behavior lagging behind technological innovations ○ refers to the time gap between the introduction of new technology and the adaptation of social institutions, norms, and values to fully incorporate and accommodate these advancements. ○ Cultural lag occurs when the cultural components are slower to adapt compared to the rapid pace of technological progress, creating a discrepancy or tension between the two. ○ Essentially involves behavior changing more slowly than technology changes Cultural change: Includes inconsistencies Technological advances are now so rapid that there can be cultural gaps between generations. Cultural diffusion: The spread of cultural traits from one group to another; includes both material and nonmaterial cultural traits ○ Spread of cultural traits from one group to another Cultural Leveling: The process by which cultures become similar to one another; refers especially to the process by which western culture is being exported and diffused into other nations ○ Cultures become more similar (more Western) ○ cultural diversity diminishes as global connectivity increases. ○ Cultural leveling occurs as technology facilitates the spread of popular culture, norms, and values across different societies, potentially eroding traditional cultural practices and promoting a more homogenized global culture. Communication and travel: virtually instant Chapter Three: Socialization Feral , isolated, and institutionalized children help us understand that “society makes us human” Social environment: The entire human environment, including interaction with others Feral children: children assumed to have been raised by animals, in the wilderness,isolated from humans ○ those who have grown up in the wild or have had minimal contact with human society.  ○ They have limited or no exposure to language, culture, and social norms. ○ When feral children are discovered and brought back into society, they often struggle to integrate and exhibit difficulties in acquiring language, social skills, and basic human behaviors. ○ Suggests that human socialization, which occurs within a society, is essential for developing fundamental aspects of our humanity. Isolated children: refer to individuals who have been raised in extreme social isolation, typically due to severe neglect or confinement. ○ Ex: children in cages, locked room ○ These children often exhibit significant developmental delays, impaired social interactions, and difficulties in language acquisition. ○ highlights the critical role of social interaction, care, and nurturing in the development of human cognition, emotional well-being, and social functioning. Institutionalized children: those who have spent a significant portion of their lives in institutional settings, such as orphanages or group homes, with limited individualized care and nurturing ○ Often face developmental challenges (emotional and cognitive) ○ Demonstrates the impact of social institutions and the quality of care they provide on human development. ○ The Skeels/Dye Experiment “High intelligence” depends on early, close relations children with intellectual disabilities were placed in a nurturing environment with high-functioning adult women, while another group remained in the institution. The results showed that the children who received nurturing care showed significant improvements in cognitive abilities compared to those who remained in the institution. ○ Orphanage in Romania Research on institutionalized children in Romania's orphanages revealed that children who experienced early neglect and lacked close relationships exhibited lower cognitive abilities compared to those who were placed in foster care or adopted into nurturing families. ○ Genie, a child in California, had been locked in a small room and tied to a potty chair since she was 20 months old. She was discovered when she was 13 years old: The longer that children lack stimulating interaction, the more difficulty they have intellectually  Humans are social beings, and our development and well-being are intricately linked to the social environment in which we grow and interact. Our cognitive, emotional, and social well being depends on our interactions Harlow’s experiments (monkey ones) demonstrated that social and emotional needs, such as the desire for comfort and companionship, are essential for healthy development. Socialization: the process by which people learn the characteristics of their group–the knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, norms, and actions thought appropriate for them Cooley (looking-glass self), Mead (role taking), and Piaget (reasoning) to explain socialization into the self and mind Self: the unique human capacity of being able to see ourselves “from the outside”; the views we internalize of how we think others see us Looking-Glass Self: a term coined by Charles Horton Cooley to refer to the process by which our self develops through internalizing others’ reactions to us ○ Contains three elements: 1. We imagine how we appear to those around us. For example, we may think that others perceive us as witty or dull. 2. We interpret others’ reactions. We come to conclusions about how others evaluate us. Do they like us for being witty? Do they dislike us for being dull? 3. We develop a self-concept. How we interpret others’ reactions to us frames our feelings and ideas about ourselves. A favorable reflection in this social mirror leads to a positive self-concept; a negative reflection leads to a negative self-concept. ○ suggests that we develop our self-image based on how we believe others perceive us. Taking the role of the other: putting yourself in someone else’s shoes; understanding how someone else feels and thinks, so you anticipate how that person will act ○ Symbolic interactionist George Herbert Mead founded “Role Taking” ○ We learn to understand and take on the perspectives of others. ○ This process allows us to anticipate and respond to social expectations, ultimately forming our sense of self. ○ Significant other: An individual who significantly influences someone else ○ Generalized other: the norms, values, attitudes, and expectations of people “in general”; the child’s ability to take the role of the generalized other is a significant step in the development of a self  ○ Mead’s three stages to how we learn to take the role of the other: Stage 1: imitation (children under 3; no sense of self; imitate others Stage 2: play (ages 3-6; play “pretend” others–princess, spiderman, etc.) Stage 3: Team games (around age 6-7; organized play; learn to take multiple roles) Piaget + the development of reasoning: highlights how cognitive development plays a crucial role in socialization. ○ As we develop reasoning abilities, we acquire the capacity to understand social norms, values, and expectations, and engage in more complex social interactions. ○ 4 stages (natural process as they develop their ability to reason) 1. Sensorimotor Stage: (birth - age 2) children rely on their senses and motor actions to explore the world. (sucking, touching, listening, looking); we aren’t able to think 2. Preoperational Stage: (abt age 2 - age 7) they develop symbolic representation but have limited logical reasoning–do not understand what numbers mean or concepts of size, speed, or causation 3. Concrete Operational Stage: (abt age 7-12) they gain the ability to think logically about concrete objects and events. Numbers, size, speed, causation, are understood but truth or justice is not 4. Formal Operational Stage: (after abt age 12) They can think abstractly and reason about hypothetical situations Development of personality, morality, and socialization into emotions are part of how “society makes us humans” Freud believes that personality consists of three elements ○ 1. Id: (each child is born with this) our inborn basic drives (that cause us to seek self-gratification); operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of basic instincts. ○ 2. Ego: (emerges due to constraint of parent’s needs) a balancing force between the Id and the demands of society; acts as a mediator, balancing the id's desires with the constraints of reality. ○ 3. Superego: (also known as conscience) the internalized norms and values of our social groups ○ Sociological Evaluation:  Freud's theory has been critiqued for its heavy emphasis on individual psychology and its limited consideration of the social and cultural factors that shape personality. However, his work has contributed to understanding the internal conflicts and dynamics within individuals that can be influenced by social structures and norms. Kohlberg's theory of moral development: proposes that individuals progress through six stages of moral reasoning, grouped into three levels: ○ pre-conventional (rules are followed to stay out of trouble), ○ conventional (following norms and values), ○ post-conventional (individuals are able to reflect on abstract principles of right and wrong and judge others accordingly) ○ He believed that moral development is a result of cognitive growth and understanding of moral principles. ○ As individuals advance through the stages, their moral reasoning becomes more complex, encompassing considerations of social norms, empathy, justice, and ethical principles. ○ Kohlberg's theory has been influential in understanding how individuals develop their moral values and the factors that shape their decision-making processes. Cross-cultural research: involves studying and comparing different cultures to understand universal patterns, cultural variations, and the impact of cultural factors on human behavior and beliefs. ○ Helps us explore how culture influences various aspects of human life ○ More is needed to understand how our society affects what we feel Gender messages from the family, peers, and the mass media teach society’s gender map Gender: the behaviors and attitudes that a society considers proper for its males and females; masculinity or femininity Gender socialization: learning society’s “gender map,” the paths in life set out for us because we are male or female Peer group: a group of individuals, often of roughly the same age, who are linked by common interests and orientations Mass Media: forms of communication, such as radio, newspapers, and television that are directed to mass audiences Family, the neighborhood, religion, day care, school, peer groups, workplace are agents of socialization Agents of Socialization: people or groups that affect our self concept, attitudes, behaviors, or other orientations toward life ○ Family = primary agent because it transmits cultural values, norms, and behaviors from one generation to the next. ○ The neighborhood, religion, and school contribute to socialization by providing additional social interactions, imparting knowledge, and shaping beliefs and values. ○ Day care, peer groups, and the workplace also influence socialization by exposing individuals to diverse social environments, teaching social skills, and shaping attitudes and behaviors through interaction with peers and colleagues. Manifest functions: the intended beneficial consequences of people’s actions Latent functions: unintended beneficial consequences of people’s actions Anticipatory socialization: process of learning in advance an anticipated future role or status Total institutions + how they resocialize people Resocialization: The process of learning new norms, values, attitudes, and behaviors (Ex: Alcoholics anonymous, wilderness camps, etc..) Total institutions: a place that is almost totally controlled by those who run it, in which people are cut off from the rest of society and the society is mostly cut off from them ○ such as prisons, military barracks, or some psychiatric hospitals. ○ In these institutions, individuals undergo resocialization ○ involves strict discipline, surveillance, and intense socialization techniques aimed at shaping individuals to conform to the institution's expectations and requirements. ○ Greeted with degradation ceremony: a term coined by Harold Garfinkel to refer to a ritual whose goal is to remake someone’s self by stripping away that individual’s self-identity and stamping a new identity in its place Ex: fingerprinting, photographing, shaving one’s head, stripping, examination in semi public humiliation Life course + sociological significance Life course: stages of our life as we go from birth to death ○ divided into several major divisions, including childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood.  ○ These divisions are characterized by distinct social roles, expectations, and challenges that individuals encounter as they progress through life. ○ highlights the influence of social factors and structures on individuals' life trajectories, emphasizing the importance of understanding how social contexts shape individuals' experiences, opportunities, and outcomes over time. ○ It recognizes that people's lives are shaped by a combination of personal agency and social structures, ○ Childhood (from birth to about age 12) Child labor Terrorizing children Industrialization ○ Adolescence (ages 13-17) A social invention Initiation rites Must “find themselves” + carve identity ○ Transitional adulthood (ages 18-29) Adultolescence– ^^^term that refers to a period following high school when young adults have not yet taken on the responsibilities ordinarily associated with adulthood; ○ The Middle Years (ages 30-65) The Early Middle The Later Middle - health issues, bodies change Fundamental reorientation in thinking –from time since birth to time left to live ○ The Older Years (about age 65 on) The Transitional Older Years– social isolation harms body and brain The Later Older Years- physical decline We are not prisoners of socialization: We are not prisoners of socialization because as individuals, we possess the capacity for critical thinking, self-reflection, and personal agency. While socialization undoubtedly influences our beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors, we have the ability to question and challenge societal norms, adapt to new circumstances, and make autonomous choices based on our unique experiences, values, and aspirations. Our individuality allows us to transcend the limitations of socialization and assert our own identities and paths in life. Chapter Four: Socialization Difference between macrosociology vs microsociology Macrosociology: analysis of social life that focuses on broad features of society, such as social class and the relationships of groups to one another ○ usually used by functionalists and conflict theorists ○ study of large-scale social structures, systems, and patterns, focusing on broader social phenomena such as institutions, social classes, and social movements. ○ seeks to understand how these macro-level factors shape and influence society as a whole. ○ Broad features of society Microsociology: analysis of social life that focuses on social interaction; typically used by symbolic interactionists ○ examines small-scale social interactions and individual behavior within specific social contexts ○ analyzes the dynamics of everyday interactions, social roles, and the subjective experiences of individuals to gain insights into how individuals construct and interpret their social reality. ○ Social interactions Social interaction: One person’s actions influencing someone else; usually refers to what people do when they are in one another’s presence, but also includes communications at a distance Significance of social structure: Social structure: the framework of society that surrounds us ○ consists of the ways that people and groups are related to one another ○ This framework gives direction to and sets limits on our behavior ○ Provides a framework for understanding and analyzing the patterns of relationships, roles, and institutions that shape social life. ○ Helps to establish stability, order, and predictability in society by defining social positions, expectations, and norms. ○ By examining social structure, we can better comprehend how individuals and groups are interconnected, how power and inequality are distributed, and how societal changes occur. ○ Surrounds us ○ People learn behaviors and attitudes because of their location in the social structure ○ Ex: even though you feel euphoric over some great news, you would not enter a classroom throwing your book in the air and spinning around  ○ Guides our behavior Major Components of social structure ○ Culture Our shared culture Makes us similar to one another Makes other people seem different than one another ○ Social Class: (according to Weber) a large group of people who rank close to one another in property, power and prestige According to Marx, one of two groups: capitalists who own the means of production or workers who sell their labor Based on income, education, occupational prestige Those of the same social class share similar interests ○ Social Status Status: Position one occupies in social group (also called social status) Provides guidelines for how to act and feel Status sets: all the statuses or positions that an individual occupies Ascribed statuses: a position an individual either inherits at birth or receives involuntarily later in life Achieved statuses: position that is earned or involved at least some effort was exerted on the individual’s part Status symbols: indicators of a status; items that display prestige Status inconsistency: ranking high on some dimensions of social status and low on others; also called status discrepancy Master status: a status that cuts across the other statuses that an individual occupies Ex: sex is something that whatever you do, you will always be perceived as one or the other Social class and social status are significant factors in social life. Fundamental to what we become, they affect our orientations to life. ○ Roles: Behaviors, obligations, and privileges attached to a status Lay out what is expected of people ○ Groups: People who interact and share values and interests (also called social group) Status symbols: Indicators of a status; items that display prestige (ex: wedding ring to indicate marriage; scarlet letter) Significance of social institutions + compare functionalist and conflict perspectives on social institutions Social institution: the organized, usual, or standard ways by which society meets its basic needs ○ Essential building blocks of society, as they provide established norms, values, and rules that guide individuals' behavior and interactions. ○ Help maintain social order, fulfill basic societal needs, and contribute to the stability and functioning of society as a whole. ○ Organized, usual and standard ways ○ How society meets its basic needs ○ Functionalist perspective: social institutions are seen as vital for maintaining social cohesion and ensuring the smooth functioning of society. They are viewed as serving specific functions and working together to maintain social equilibrium. Believes that society must Replace members Socialize new members Produce and distribute goods and services Preserve order (to protect themselves) Provide a sense of purpose ○ Conflict perspective: sees social institutions as reflecting and perpetuating existing power dynamics and inequalities emphasizes how powerful social institutions can be used to maintain the dominance of certain groups and enforce social control, often at the expense of marginalized or oppressed individuals or groups. Agree that social institutions were designed to meet basic survival needs, but do not view social institutions as working harmoniously for the common good Society has a small, elite group in power that Holds the majority of society’s wealth Wants to preserve the status quo Explain what holds society together Social integration: (social cohesion) the degree to which members of a group or a society are united by shared values and other social bonds  Society is held together by shared values, norms, and beliefs that provide a common understanding and guide individuals' behavior. Social institutions, such as family, education, and religion, also play a crucial role in establishing and maintaining social bonds and providing a sense of belonging and collective identity. Additionally, the enforcement of laws, social contracts, and systems of governance contribute to the maintenance of social order and the resolution of conflicts. What Holds Society Together? ○ As societies grow and modernize, a fundamental shift in relationships occurs ○ (Emile Durkheim) Mechanical and Organic Solidarity: Mechanical Solidarity: term for the unity (a shared consciousness) that people feel as a result of performing he same or similar tasks ; they develop a shared way of viewing life Division of labor: The splitting of a group’s or a society’s tasks into specialties– as societies get larger, they develop different kinds of work Ex: some people mine gold, others turn it into jewelry, and others sell it This disperses people into different interest groups where they develop different ideas about life –no longer depend on one another to have similar ideas and behaviors Organic solidarity: term for the interdependence that results from the division of labor; as part of the same unit, we all depend on others to fulfill their jobs Individuals depend on one another to do specific work, each person contributing to the group Ex: the organs of your body need one another: lungs depend on heart to pump blood, heart depends on lungs to oxygenate blood What symbolic interactionists study + explanation of dramaturgy + ethnomethodology Symbolic interactionists: interested in in how people view things and how this, in turn, affects their behavior and orientations to life ○ They study: Stereotypes in Everyday Life  We see features of the person or hear things about the person. We fit what we see or hear into stereotypes and then expect the person to act in certain ways. How we expect the person to act shapes our attitudes and actions From how we act, the person gets ideas of how we perceive him or her. The behaviors of the person change to match our expectations, confirming the stereotypes. Personal Space We protect our “personal bubble” And let/don’t let certain people in it ○ Culturally specific Eye Contact We use this to be intimate (one way we protect our personal bubble) ○ Can be misinterpreted otherwise → might be seen as invitation to intimacy Smiling Misinterpretation likely Not necessarily useful for businesses outside the U.S. Body language The ways in which people use their bodies to give messages to others Interpretation: Useful for businesses and governments especially Used to determine whether someone is joking/ how to react to others Dramaturgy: (Erving Goffman) approach in which social life is analyzed in terms of drama or the stage (also called dramaturgical analysis) Impression management: efforts to manage the impressions that others receive of us ○ Done on front stages: places where we perform roles assigned to us (everyday life is filled with this) Back stages: places where we retreat from performances, discuss and plan future performances (checking makeup in car before getting out) Role performance: the ways in which someone performs a role showing a particular “style” or “personality”  Role conflict: conflict that someone feels between roles because the expectations attached to one role are at odds with those attached to another role ○ arises when a person is confronted with incompatible expectations or demands from different roles they occupy. ○ occurs when the expectations, obligations, or requirements of one role clash with those of another role Role strain: conflicts that someone feels within a role ○ refers to the stress and tension experienced by an individual when they struggle to meet the multiple and sometimes conflicting expectations associated with a single role. ○ occurs when the demands, responsibilities, or expectations within a particular role become overwhelming or contradictory, creating strain and difficulty in fulfilling those expectations. Sign in vehicles: refers to how people use (1) social setting, (2) appearance, and (3) manner to communicate information about the self ○ clothing, gestures, and language, are employed to communicate and convey desired impressions to others during these performances. Teamwork: two or more people working together to help a performance come off as funny (doing teamwork when laughing at boss’ bad joke because it gives a good performance. ○ collaborative efforts of individuals in coordinating their roles and actions to maintain a smooth and coherent social performance. Face-saving behavior: techniques used to salvage a performance (interaction) that is going sour Becoming the roles we play: suggests that through repeated performances and interactions, individuals internalize and incorporate the expectations and characteristics of their roles, leading to a fusion of their personal identity with the roles they enact in society. Ethnomethodology: (Harold Garfinkel) the study of how people use background assumptions to make sense out of life (how people use commonsense understandings to make sense of life) ○ Background assumption: a deeply embedded, common understanding of how the world operates and of how people ought to act Applying social construction of reality to your own life Thomas theorem: (definition of the situation) “if people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences” ○ emphasizes the significance of subjective interpretations and beliefs in shaping individuals' behavior and social outcomes. ○ individuals' actions are not solely determined by objective reality but are influenced by their perceptions and interpretations of the situation.  ○ If individuals perceive a situation as real, regardless of its objective truth, they will respond to it as if it were true, leading to real consequences and effects on their behavior and interactions. ○ For example, if a person believes they are being discriminated against, even if there is no concrete evidence of discrimination, their perception of discrimination may lead them to act in ways that reflect their belief. Social construction of reality: the use of background assumptions and life-experiences to define what is real Why we need macrosociology and microsociology to understand social life provide different perspectives and insights into different levels of social phenomena. By combining both macrosociological and microsociological perspectives, we gain a more comprehensive understanding of social life. Macrosociology helps us identify the larger patterns and structures that shape society, while microsociology allows us to examine how individuals navigate and interpret those structures in their everyday lives. This interdisciplinary approach helps capture the complexity and interconnectedness of social phenomena, offering a more nuanced understanding of social life as a whole Chapter Five: How sociologists do research 8 steps of the research model: 1. Selecting a topic 2. Defining the problem 3. Reviewing the literature 4. Formulating a hypothesis 5. Choosing a research method 6. Collecting the data 7. Analyzing the results 8. Sharing the results (with scientific community) Chapter Six (5 in powerpoint): Social groups and formal organizations primary groups, secondary groups, in-groups and out-groups, reference groups, and social networks.  Primary group: a small group characterized by cooperative, intimate, long-term, face-to-face relationships ○ refers to a small, intimate, and long-term association characterized by face-to-face interaction, emotional connections, and a strong sense of belonging. ○ These groups are typically composed of family members, close friends, and small community networks. ○ The primary groups play a crucial role in shaping an individual's identity, socialization, and emotional support. ○ Family and friends ○ Producing a mirror within: you have internalized their views, which are now lenses through which you view life; contributes greatly to your perspective Secondary group: compared with a primary group, a larger, relatively temporary, more anonymous, formal, and impersonal group based on some interest or activity ○ Larger, formal, and impersonal ○ May subdivide into primary groups ○ Formed for specific purposes or tasks. ○ Often temporary and goal-oriented, such as work colleagues, academic classmates, or members of an organization ○ Relationships are generally based on shared interests, achievements, or common objectives, and they serve specific instrumental functions rather than fostering deep personal ties. ○ Fails to satisfy our deep needs for intimate association The Inner Circle: refers to a small group of individuals who hold significant influence and decision-making power within an organization or a social group. They often have privileged access to information, resources, and decision-making processes, which can give them a disproportionate amount of control. ○ Key members who distant from rank and file The “Iron Claw’ of Oligarchy: (sociologist Robert Michels) ○ suggests that in any organization, power tends to become concentrated in the hands of a few individuals or a small elite over time, regardless of the organization's original goals or democratic ideals. ○ This law highlights the inherent tendency for organizations, even those with egalitarian aspirations, to develop hierarchical structures and power imbalances that may limit participation and democratic decision-making among members.  ○ How organizations come to be dominated by a small, self-perpetuating elite In-Group: a group toward which one feels loyalty ○ refers to a social group with which an individual identifies and feels a sense of belonging. ○ Typically includes people who share common characteristics, values, or interests, ○ Individuals within the in-group often establish positive attitudes and bonds of loyalty towards one another. ○ We feel loyalty ○ They shape our perception of right and wrong ○ We think of them as “Us” Out-Group: a group toward which one feels antagonism ○ often viewed with a sense of distinctiveness, and individuals may hold negative stereotypes or attitudes towards its members. ○ We feel antagonism ○ We think of them as “Them” In-group and out-group distinctions play a role in shaping social behavior, as they can lead to favoritism and bias towards the in-group and potential discrimination or prejudice against the out-group. Reference groups: a group whose standards we refer to as we evaluate ourselves thereby shaping our attitudes, beliefs, values, and behaviors ○ serve as points of reference for individuals to compare themselves and their actions against. ○ Can be either real or imaginary, and they can vary depending on the specific context or aspect of life being considered ○ Individuals may choose reference groups based on their aspirations, affiliations, or social identities. ○ For example, a student may consider their classmates or a particular academic community as a reference group when setting their academic goals and evaluating their own achievements. ○ The influence of reference groups can be direct, through explicit comparisons and conformity, or indirect, through aspirational or avoidance behaviors. ○ Important for understanding socialization, self-concept, and the adoption of cultural norms and values. Social Network: The social ties radiating outward from the self that link people together ○ Includes your family, friends, acquaintances, people a work and school, etc  ○ 6 degrees of separation Chapter 7 (5 in powerpoint): Bureaucracy and Formal Organizations Formal Organizations: a secondary group designed to achieve explicit objectives (rare in traditional societies) Bureaucracy: (Max Weber) A formal organization with a (1) hierarchy of authority and a (2) clear division of labor; (3) emphasis on impersonality of positions and (4) written rules, (5) communications, and records with a focus on efficiency and rationality (assignments flow downward and accountability flows upward) ○ aim to provide stability, predictability, and consistency in achieving organizational goals. ○ Today’s armies are an example bureaucracies ○ Goal displacement: an organization replacing old goals with new ones (goal replacement) occurs when the organization's original goals become secondary to the self-perpetuation and maintenance of the bureaucracy itself. Can lead to a shift in focus towards administrative procedures and internal politics, rather than the efficient achievement of the organization's intended objectives. ○ Dysfunctions: These dysfunctions highlight the limitations and potential drawbacks of bureaucratic systems in modern society. Bureaucratic Red Tape: where excessive rules and procedures hinder decision-making and productivity leads to frustration, delays, and a decrease in productivity. Organizational inertia: where bureaucracies resist change and innovation due to a focus on maintaining stability and preserving existing structures. can result in a lack of adaptability and the inability to respond effectively to new challenges or opportunities Alienation: where individuals may feel disconnected and demotivated due to the impersonal nature of bureaucratic relationships.  may lead to feelings of disconnection, powerlessness, and dissatisfaction as workers begin to feel more like objects than people Peter Principle: members of an organization are promoted for their accomplishments until they reach their level of incompetence; there they cease to be promoted, remaining at the level at which they can no longer do good work Dysfunctions can also arise from goal displacement McDonaldization of Society: (George Ritzer) The process by which ordinary aspects of life are rationalized and efficiency comes to rule them, including such things as food preparation ○ refers to the increasing influence of fast food principles and processes in various aspects of contemporary society. ○ It is characterized by four key dimensions: efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control. Efficiency entails the emphasis on speed and productivity in accomplishing tasks. Calculability emphasizes the quantifiable aspects of products and services, such as portion sizes or turnaround times. Predictability involves the standardization and uniformity of experiences and outcomes. Control refers to the mechanistic and highly rationalized methods employed to maintain consistency and minimize human variability. ○ reflects the broader trend of rationalization, where efficiency and predictability take precedence over other social values. ○ It influences not only the fast food industry but also other sectors such as education, healthcare, and entertainment, shaping the way people consume, work, and experience social life. “Hidden” corporate culture and worker diversity Humanizing the work setting: Organizing a workplace in such a way that is develops rather than impedes human potential ○ Because workers thrive in warm, supportive environments ○ Try to do this in two ways: worker empowerment and child care ○ Conflict theorists point out that this term is camouflage for what is really going on: endless attempt to manipulate workers into cooperating Self-fulfilling stereotype: preconceived ideas of what someone is like that lead to the person’s behaving in ways that match the stereotype Corporate culture: the values, norms, and other orientations that characterize corporate work settings  “Hidden” corporate culture: stereotypes of the traits that make for high-performing and underperforming workers, which end up producing both types of workers ○ These stereotypes and their powerful effects on workers remain hidden to everyone, even the supervisors. ○ refers to the underlying values, norms, and beliefs that shape the behavior and interactions of individuals within a workplace, often beyond the officially stated culture. ○ can influence decision-making processes, power dynamics, and overall organizational functioning. ○ can sometimes hinder efforts to embrace diversity by perpetuating biases, discrimination, and unequal opportunities. Self fulfilling stereotypes in the “hidden” corporate culture: ○ Who gets promoted? ○ Who doesn’t? ○ Why? Diversity in the workplace: ○ Worker diversity, on the other hand, recognizes the presence of individuals from diverse backgrounds, including but not limited to race, gender, ethnicity, age, and socioeconomic status, within the workforce. ○ ​crucial for creating inclusive and equitable work environments ○ Group dynamics ○ Effects of Group Size on Stability and Intimacy + Attitudes and Behavior vary depending on the specific context. In general, larger groups may experience decreased intimacy and increased task-focused behavior, while smaller groups often foster stronger relationships and more open communication. ○ Leadership Different leadership styles, such as autocratic or democratic, can influence group dynamics and outcomes. Types Instrumental Expressive Styles Authoritarian Democratic Laissez-faire  The power of peer pressure ○ The Asch experiment: revealed the power of peer pressure, showing that individuals often conform to the opinions of the majority, even when they know it's incorrect. Conformity Experiment in which respondents often conformed to a group of strangers explored the power of peer pressure and the influence it has on individual behavior. Participants were presented with a simple perceptual task of comparing line lengths, and when confronted with a unanimous incorrect answer from the confederates, many participants conformed to the group consensus, disregarding their own judgment. This study highlighted the strong social influence and the tendency of individuals to conform to group norms, even in situations where their own perception or judgment contradicts the majority. The power of authority ○ The Milgram experiment: demonstrated how individuals can be influenced by authority figures to carry out potentially harmful actions. How people “just follow orders” Experiment in which respondents continued even though they thought they were administering severe shocks aimed to examine the power of authority and obedience to authority figures. Participants were instructed to administer electric shocks to a confederate who pretended to be in pain, with the shocks increasing in intensity. Despite the ethical concerns, a significant majority of participants obeyed the experimenter's commands to continue administering shocks, demonstrating the alarming extent to which individuals can be influenced by authority figures, even when their actions conflict with their own moral beliefs. This experiment highlighted the complex interplay between obedience, authority, and personal responsibility in social situations. Global consequences of group dynamics ○ Groupthink: refers to the tendency of cohesive groups to prioritize harmony and consensus over critical thinking, leading to flawed decision-making and stifled creativity. These shed light on the complexities of human behavior within group settings.