Introduction to Sociology Lecture Notes PDF

Lecture Notes on Sociology Understanding Culture, Society and Politics Senior High School Department University of Santo Tomas Introduction to Sociology SOCIOLOGY represents the systematic study of social relationships, groups, and social institutions in ge...

Lecture Notes on Sociology Understanding Culture, Society and Politics Senior High School Department University of Santo Tomas Introduction to Sociology SOCIOLOGY represents the systematic study of social relationships, groups, and social institutions in general. It is concerned with how people interact with each other and the way in which different units like societies, organizations, and groups are organized as well as function. Relevance and Roles of Sociology  Critical Thinking: Sociologists deal critically with social norms, beliefs and values predisposing societies, thus putting assumptions into question as well as speeding up societal progress.  Cultural Awareness: Sociology fosters an understanding of cultural diversity while enabling harmony among various social communities.  Social Policy Development: By studying disorder and conflict in society, sociology serves to inform policies connected to health, criminal justice, education, welfare and others so as to provide solutions for some societal problems such as discrimination, inequality or poverty.  Understanding Social Behavior: Sociology elucidates on how individual and collective behaviors within society can be understood through its lens by revealing the patterns and structures that define human interaction. CULTURE – refers to the shared beliefs, values, norms, and practices that define a group of people. It encompasses everything from language, art, and religion to laws, customs, and everyday rituals. Elements of Culture  Beliefs: Specific ideas that people hold to be true, often tied to religion, science, or ideology.  Language: A system of symbols that allows members of a society to communicate with one another.  Material Culture: The physical objects created by members of a society, including buildings, art, tools, and technology.  Norms: Rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members. These include folkways (casual interactions) and mores (norms with moral significance).  Symbols: Anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share a culture, such as language, gestures, or objects.  Values: Culturally defined standards that guide the way people assess desirability, goodness, and beauty, serving as broad guidelines for social living. SOCIETY – A group of individuals who live in a defined geographical area, share a common culture, and interact with one another. Elements of Society These elements shape and work together to form the structure of society, guiding human behavior, social interactions in order to function and sustain social life human beings.  Social Institutions – These are organized structures that provide guidelines for behavior and help meet the needs of society. Key institutions include: 1 Family: The primary social unit responsible for reproduction, care, and socialization. Lecture Notes on Sociology Understanding Culture, Society and Politics Senior High School Department University of Santo Tomas Education: Transmits knowledge, skills, and cultural values to future generations. Religion: Provides moral and ethical guidelines and shapes cultural beliefs. Economy: Manages the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Government: Regulates order, enforces laws, and distributes power.  Social Groups – Social groups are collections of individuals who interact regularly and share a sense of identity or belonging. Primary Groups: Small, intimate groups, such as family and close friends, that play a significant role in personal development. Secondary Groups: Larger, more impersonal groups, such as coworkers or social clubs, often goal-oriented or task-focused.  Social Status – Social status refers to a person's position within society, which influences their social identity and roles. Ascribed Status: A status one is born into, such as gender or race. Achieved Status: A status one earns through actions, such as a job or educational attainment.  Social Roles – Social roles are the expectations attached to a particular status. Individuals have various roles depending on their relationships and positions in society. For example, a person can simultaneously be a parent, employee, and citizen, each with specific responsibilities and expectations.  Culture – Refers to the shared beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, and material objects that define a society. It shapes how individuals perceive the world and interact with others. Material Culture: Physical objects like tools, buildings, and technology. Non-material Culture: Intangible aspects like language, norms, values, and symbols.  Social Norms – Social norms are the rules and expectations that guide behavior within society. They help maintain order by setting boundaries for acceptable and unacceptable actions. Folkways: Informal norms governing everyday behavior, like table manners. Mores: More significant norms related to morality and ethics, such as prohibitions against theft. Laws: Formal norms enforced by institutions with clearly defined penalties.  Social Stratification – This refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals or groups based on factors like wealth, power, education, and social class. Social stratification influences access to resources and opportunities, often leading to social inequality.  Socialization – The process through which individuals learn and internalize the values, beliefs, and norms of their society. It is through socialization that people develop their sense of self and learn how to interact with others. Primary Socialization – The first stage of socialization that occurs during early childhood, primarily within the family. o Major Agents: Family members, caregivers, and close relatives. o Purpose: It helps children learn basic norms, values, language, and skills needed for 2 interacting in society. Lecture Notes on Sociology Understanding Culture, Society and Politics Senior High School Department University of Santo Tomas o Example: A child learns to speak, use utensils, follow household rules, and show respect to elders. Secondary Socialization – The process of learning appropriate behavior within smaller groups in society, typically outside the family, such as school, peer groups, and workplaces. o Major Agents: Teachers, friends, colleagues, media, and religious institutions. o Purpose: Helps individuals learn how to behave in specific social roles or institutional contexts. o Example: A student learns to follow school rules, socialize with peers, and understand how to behave in public spaces. Anticipatory Socialization – The process of learning and adopting behaviors and expectations for future roles or social positions. o Major Agents: Peers, mentors, media, and education. o Purpose: Prepares individuals for future changes or transitions in life, such as entering a new career or becoming a parent. o Example: An intern learns the norms and culture of the workplace in preparation for a full- time job. Resocialization – The process of discarding old behaviors and norms and adopting new ones, often in a different environment or role. o Major Agents: Total institutions such as the military, prisons, or rehabilitation centers. o Purpose: Involves a radical shift in a person’s identity, often imposed by a new environment that requires different behavior. o Example: A former prisoner re-learns societal norms after being released or a soldier adjusts to civilian life after military service. Developmental Socialization – The process of developing and refining skills and behaviors that have already been learned, often continuing throughout adulthood. o Major Agents: Mentors, colleagues, family, and life experiences. o Purpose: Encourages continuous learning and adaptation to new social roles or challenges. o Example: A manager improves leadership skills through professional development training or by gaining work experience over time. Gender Socialization – The process by which individuals learn the behaviors, attitudes, and expectations associated with their gender, based on societal norms. o Major Agents: Family, peers, media, and educational systems. o Purpose: Shapes one’s understanding of gender roles and expectations in society. o Example: A child is encouraged to play with toys traditionally associated with their gender, such as dolls for girls or trucks for boys. Political Socialization – The process through which individuals learn political beliefs, values, and behaviors, and develop their political identity. o Major Agents: Family, media, schools, political institutions, and peer groups. o Purpose: Helps individuals understand political systems, participate in civic life, and form 3 political opinions. Lecture Notes on Sociology Understanding Culture, Society and Politics Senior High School Department University of Santo Tomas o Example: A teenager learns about voting, political parties, and government policies through school lessons and family discussions. Cultural Socialization – The process of learning the cultural values, beliefs, norms, and practices of one’s own culture or ethnicity. o Major Agents: Family, community, schools, media, and religious institutions. o Purpose: Helps individuals develop a sense of identity and belonging within their cultural or ethnic group. o Example: A child learns traditional customs, language, and holidays specific to their cultural background. Religious Socialization – The process by which individuals learn the beliefs, values, and practices of a religious tradition. o Major Agents: Family, religious institutions (church, mosque, temple), and religious texts. o Purpose: Transmits religious beliefs and moral codes to individuals, often beginning in early childhood. o Example: A child is taught to pray, attend religious services, and follow specific religious rituals as part of their faith.  Power and Authority – Power is the ability to influence others’ behavior, while authority is the legitimate right to wield power. These elements are crucial in shaping social relationships and institutions, especially within politics and governance.  Social Interaction – The dynamic exchange between individuals or groups that shapes relationships and builds society. Social interactions can range from casual conversations to complex institutional dynamics, and they are influenced by factors such as norms, roles, and status. POLITICS – Involves the process by which groups make decisions, allocate resources, and create laws. It is the practice and theory of influencing other people on a civic or individual level. Elements of Politics  Authority: The legitimate or accepted use of power, often institutionalized in the form of governments or religious organizations.  Government: The organization of power within a society, responsible for making and enforcing laws, policies, and regulations.  Ideology: A set of beliefs or philosophies attributed to a person or group, influencing political behavior and policy-making.  Law: A system of rules created and enforced through social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior.  Power: The ability to influence or outright control the behavior of people and institutions, whether through authority, force, or persuasion. 4 Lecture Notes on Sociology Understanding Culture, Society and Politics Senior High School Department University of Santo Tomas Brief Background of Sociology  August Comte (1798–1857), often considered the father of sociology, coined the term “sociology” and introduced positivism, advocating for the study of society using scientific methods.  Karl Marx (1818–1883) focused on the conflicts inherent in capitalist societies, highlighting class struggles as a central aspect of social life.  Emile Durkheim (1858–1917) explored the role of social integration and collective conscience, emphasizing the importance of social facts and institutions.  Max Weber (1864–1920) examined the effects of rationalization and bureaucracy on society, contributing to the understanding of authority and social action. Sociology developed as a response to the social changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution (1760-1840), urbanization, and political revolutions, seeking to understand and address these transformations. Sociological Theories and Perspectives Presuppositions of Sociological Theories  Social Reality is Constructed  Patterns and Structures Exist  Human Behavior is Contextual  Change and Stability STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM THEORY  Definition: A framework that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote stability and order.  Major Proponents: Auguste Comte, Émile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons, Robert K. Merton  Key Concepts: Social institutions, social stability, functions (manifest and latent), equilibrium  Main Idea: This theory views society as a complex system with various parts working together to promote stability and social order. Each part of society has a function that contributes to the overall functioning of the system.  Example: Durkheim’s study on suicide, which identified social integration and regulation as key factors in understanding variations in suicide rates. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM THEORY  Definition: A framework that focuses on the interactions among individuals based on mutually understood symbols.  Major Proponents: George Herbert Mead, Herbert Blumer, Erving Goffman.  Key Concepts: Symbols, meaning-making, social interaction, identity, self-concept  Main Idea: This theory emphasizes the role of symbols and everyday interactions in creating and maintaining social reality. It focuses on how individuals create meaning through their social interactions.  Example: Goffman’s dramaturgical analysis, which compares social interaction to a theatrical 5 performance, where individuals present themselves in various roles. Lecture Notes on Sociology Understanding Culture, Society and Politics Senior High School Department University of Santo Tomas CONFLICT THEORY  Definition: A framework that views society as an arena of inequality, which generates conflict and change.  Major Proponents: Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, W.E.B. Du Bois, Antonio Gramsci  Key Concepts: Class struggle, power dynamics, exploitation, social change  Main Idea: This theory focuses on the struggles between different social classes or groups over resources, power, and status. It emphasizes the inherent conflicts and inequalities within society.  Example: Marx’s analysis of capitalism, highlighting the exploitation of the working class and predicting its eventual overthrow. SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY  Definition: This theory posits that social behavior is the result of an exchange process. The purpose of this exchange is to maximize benefits and minimize costs. According to the theory, human relationships are formed based on subjective evaluations of rewards and costs.  Major Proponents: George Homans, Peter Blau  Key Concepts: Comparison Level, Costs, Power, Reciprocity, Rewards  Main Idea: This theory suggests that people engage in social interactions with an expectation of reciprocity, weighing the potential rewards and costs. Individuals are motivated to maintain relationships when the rewards outweigh the costs and may exit or avoid relationships where the costs are greater than the rewards.  Example: On Friendship: Two friends regularly help each other with personal problems and provide emotional support. If one friend constantly helps the other but does not receive the same level of support in return, they may feel that the “cost” is too high, leading to a reevaluation or termination of the friendship. FEMINIST THEORY  Definition: A framework that examines the ways in which gender intersects with other forms of social inequality.  Major Proponents: Harriet Martineau, Betty Friedan, bell hooks, Simone de Beauvoir, Betty Friedan, Judith Butler  Key Concepts: Gender inequality, patriarchy, intersectionality, social justice  Main Idea: This theory examines gender inequalities and the ways in which gender shapes social structures and individual experiences. It seeks to highlight and address the power dynamics and social injustices faced by women and marginalized genders.  Example: bell hooks’ work on intersectionality, emphasizing how race, gender, and class intersect to create different experiences of oppression. POSTMODERNISM  Definition: A framework that critiques modernist ideas, emphasizing the fragmented, fluid, and subjective nature of reality.  Major Proponents: Michel Foucault, Jean-François Lyotard, Jean Baudrillard, Zygmunt Bauman  Key Concepts: Power/knowledge, hyper-reality, deconstruction, discourse.  Main Idea: This theory (or movement) challenges the grand narratives and universal truths proposed by previous theories. It emphasizes the fragmented, subjective nature of social reality and the role of power in shaping knowledge and truth.  Example: Foucault’s examination of power relations, particularly how power is exercised through 6 knowledge and discourse in society. Lecture Notes on Sociology Understanding Culture, Society and Politics Senior High School Department University of Santo Tomas Current Problems and Issues in Sociology  Ageism and Aging Population  Climate Change  Climate Change  Cultural Homogenization  Environmental Degradation  Gender Inequality and Gender-Based Violence  Globalization and Metric System in Education  Health Disparities  Migration and Refugee Crises  Political Polarization and Social Conflict  Racism and Racial Discrimination  Racism and Racial Discrimination  Religious and Political Violence  Socio Inequality  Technological Advancements and Digital Society  Violence Against Women and Children Instructions for Group Activity: A. Form groups of 4-5 members. As a group, carefully read and answer the questions below. Provide detailed explanations for each question, ensuring that your response is no less than 5 sentences per answer. B. Select the most suitable sociological theory to analyze each of the following issues, and provide a justification for your choice, explaining how the theory best addresses the problem. Guide Questions: 1. How do economic disparities contribute to social power struggles in contemporary capitalist societies? 2. How do systemic biases and social norms perpetuate the gender pay gap? 3. How does one elucidate the impact of racial prejudices on law enforcement practices and discriminatory actions? 4. In what ways do the new symbols and meanings created by social media platforms affect individuals’ self-perception and communication patterns? 5. What are the primary functions of education in promoting social integration and preparing individuals for their roles in society? 7