Midterm Exam PDF

Piaget states that the four stages of cognitive development in children are processed in a specific order. 1.​ Sensorimotor - where children develop from birth through the age of two, during this stage of development children utilize skills and abilities they are born with ( ex Looking,...

Piaget states that the four stages of cognitive development in children are processed in a specific order. 1.​ Sensorimotor - where children develop from birth through the age of two, during this stage of development children utilize skills and abilities they are born with ( ex Looking, grasping, Sucking ) 2.​ Preoperational: This stage occurs between the ages of 2 and 7. In this stage, children use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why they usually participate in pretend play. 3.​ Concrete operational thinking - formed from ages 7-11 children master the use of logic in concrete ways, the word concrete refers to what is tangible, that can be seen, touched or experienced directly, they rationally start to think about physical objects, how it looks how it feels so on and so forth. What are the qualities of a concrete operational child ​ Logical thinking ​ Reversibility ​ Conservation ​ Decentration ​ Classification ​ Seriation - can arrange objects from smallest to largest, and sort coins from oldest to newest, essentially differentiating objects from each other. ​ Transitivity ​ Less egocentrism 4.​ Formal operational- characterizes the ability to formulate hypotheses and systematically test them to arrive at an answer to a problem the individual in the formal stage is also able to think abstractly and to understand the form or structure of a mathematical problem. Securely attached infants ​ Mildly protest mothers departure ​ Seeks interaction upon reunition with mother ​ Are easily comforted by mother Securely attached infants and toddlers are happier, more sociable and more cooperative. Use the mother as a secure base for exploration. Have fever negative emotion towards underminers people have longer attention spans are less impulsive are better at solving problems. And the age of 5 are better liked by peers and teachers. Insecure attachments ​ Avoidant attachment Least distressed by mother's departure  ​ Ambivalent resistant attachment Show severe distress upon separation alternate clinging and punching away ​ Disorganized disoriented attachment Seem dazed confused disoriented may move toward mother but look away How they differentiate Securely Caregiver Relationship: Consistent, responsive, and emotionally available. The caregiver provides a safe base for the child to explore the world and a secure haven to return to when needed. Child's Behavior: Trusts the caregiver, shows distress when separated, and seeks comfort upon return. Explores the environment confidently. Adult Relationships: Comfortable with intimacy and independence.​ Trusts partners, communicates openly and has healthy boundaries. Self-Image: Positive view of self and others. Feels worthy of love and support. Insecurely Caregiver Relationship: Inconsistent, neglectful, or abusive. The caregiver may be emotionally unavailable, unpredictable, or a source of fear. Child's Behavior: May be overly clingy or avoidant, depending on the specific type of insecure attachment. May show exaggerated distress or suppress emotions. Adult Relationships: Struggles with intimacy, trust, and communication. May be overly dependent, avoid closeness, or fear rejection. Self-Image: Negative view of self and/or others. May feel unworthy of love, fear abandonment, or have difficulty trusting others. ATTACHMENT is an emotional bond between two individuals, It is important to note that attachment is essential to infants' survival, innate infant behaviours like crying smiling and clinging elicit parental caregiving Infants and toddlers want contact with caregivers. If contact is not maintained they can show signs of separation anxiety, crying fussing and tugging Theories of attachment -​ Cognitive Infants must develop object permanence before forming an attachment. -​ Behavioural Caregivers become a cconditionedrenforce -​ Psychoanalytic Caregivers satisfy the infant's needs (food thirst) Erikson -​ Hafrlows Contact comfort is key to attachment Neglect and abuse of children ​ Physical abuse ​ Sexual abuse ​ Emotional abuse ​ Physical neglect ​ Emotional neglect ​ Educational neglect Physical neglect Educational neglect Emotional neglect A 2-year-old child was found An 11-year-old and a Siblings who were subjected wandering in the street late at 13-year-old who were to repeated incidents of night naked and alone chronically truant family violence between their mother and father Children who are living in a A special education student A 12-year-old whose parents home contaminated with whose mother refused to permitted him to drink and animal feces and rotting food believe he needed help in use drugs school ​ Abused children show a high incidence of personal problems and psychological disorders. Less securely attached to the parent Less interaction with peers More aggressive angry and noncompliant with other children EFFECTS OF SOCIAL DEPRECIATION ON CHILD DEVELOPMENT -​ Social deprivation in children refers to limited or absent social interaction and stimulation during crucial developmental periods. This can involve a lack of meaningful relationships, limited exposure to language and communication, and restricted opportunities to engage in social activities. -​ Children raised in institutions with little social stimulation show delays in intellect, al, and emotional development. The Delays of Autism Autism becomes evident by age 3 but sometimes before the end of the first year. INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY -​ Sensory memory or sensory register ​ The fraction of a second when we initially see, hear or feel a stimulus -​ Working memory  ​ Retained up to 30 seconds after sensory memory trace decays ​ Auditory stimuli maintained longer than visual: can encode if rehearsed -​ Long term memory ​ A vast storehouse of information ​ May last days, years or a lifetime SHORT TERM MEMORY -​ Typical adults can keep about 7 chunks (+/-2) at a time typical 5 to 6-year-olds can work on 2 at a time. -​ Adolescents like adults can keep 7 chunks at a time -​ Preschoolers solve one or two-step problems older children can retain information for earlier steps as they proceed to the next steps PARENTING STYLES -​ Authoritative parents ​ High in both control and warmth ​ Parents of the most capable children ​ Self-reliant, independent, high self-esteem exploratory socially competent -​ Autoritiatian parents ​ Because I said so ​ Controlling but no warm ​ Children are less competent socially and academically -​ Permissive parents -​ Permissive indulgent ​ Warm but not controlling ​ Children in school are more deviant in behaviour but fairly high in social competence and self-confidence. -​ Rejection - neglecting ​ Love in both warmth and control ​ Children are least competent, responsible, mature most prone to problem behaviours. MIDDLE CHILDHOOD ​ Freud's Perspective: Freud's psychosexual theory focuses on the "latency stage" during middle childhood, where he believed that psychosexual development is relatively quiet, and children's focus shifts to social and intellectual pursuits. ​ Erikson's Perspective: Erikson's psychosocial theory posits the "industry vs. inferiority" stage in middle childhood. He emphasized the importance of children developing a sense of competence and mastery through their interactions with peers and their engagement in tasks and activities. ​ Both Freud and Erikson acknowledged the significance of middle childhood as a period of social and personal growth. They agreed that children's experiences during this time contribute to their developing sense of self and their ability to navigate the social world. Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is a comprehensive model that outlines eight distinct stages of personality development, from infancy to old age. Each stage is characterized by a unique psychosocial crisis or conflict that the individual must resolve to develop a healthy sense of self and navigate the social world successfully. 1. Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy - approximately 0 to 18 months) ​ Crisis: Infants learn to trust or mistrust the world based on whether their basic needs (feeding, comfort, affection) are met consistently and responsively by caregivers. ​ Successful Resolution: Develop a sense of trust, security, and hope. ​ Unsuccessful Resolution: This leads to feelings of mistrust, anxiety, and insecurity. 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddlerhood - approximately 18 months to 3 years) ​ Crisis: Toddlers strive for independence and self-control. They explore their environment and assert their will ("no!"). ​ Successful Resolution: Develop a sense of autonomy, self-confidence, and independence. ​ Unsuccessful Resolution: This leads to feelings of shame, doubt, and dependence. 3. Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool - approximately 3 to 5 years) ​ Crisis: Children begin to initiate activities, explore their world, and interact with peers. They develop a sense of purpose and direction. ​ Successful Resolution: Develop a sense of initiative, purpose, and assertiveness. ​ Unsuccessful Resolution: This leads to feelings of guilt, inadequacy, and inhibition. 4. Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age - approximately 6 to 11 years) ​ Crisis: Children focus on learning new skills, developing competence, and achieving goals in school and social settings. ​ Successful Resolution: Develop a sense of competence, mastery, and industry. ​ Unsuccessful Resolution: This leads to feelings of inferiority, inadequacy, and failure. 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence - approximately 12 to 18 years) ​ Crisis: Adolescents explore different roles, values, and beliefs to form a coherent sense of identity. ​ Successful Resolution: Develop a strong sense of identity, self-awareness, and belonging. ​ Unsuccessful Resolution: This leads to role confusion, identity diffusion, and uncertainty about the self. 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood - approximately 19 to 40 years) ​ Crisis: Young adults seek to form close, intimate relationships with others.  ​ Successful Resolution: Develops the capacity for intimacy, love, and commitment. ​ Unsuccessful Resolution: This leads to feelings of isolation, loneliness, and difficulty forming meaningful relationships. 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood - approximately 40 to 65 years) ​ Crisis: Adults contribute to society and future generations through work, family, or community involvement. ​ Successful Resolution: Develop a sense of generativity, purpose, and contribution to the world. ​ Unsuccessful Resolution: This leads to feelings of stagnation, self-absorption, and lack of purpose. 8. Integrity vs. Despair (Old Age - approximately 65 years and beyond) ​ Crisis: Older adults reflect on their lives and evaluate their accomplishments and regrets. ​ Successful Resolution: Develop a sense of integrity, satisfaction, and acceptance of one's life. ​ Unsuccessful Resolution: This leads to feelings of despair, regret, and bitterness. Psychoanalytic Theory: Unveiling the Unconscious Psychoanalytic theory is a complex and influential framework in psychology that originated with the work of Sigmund Freud in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind in shaping human behaviour, thoughts, and emotions. Core Concepts ​ The Unconscious Mind: Psychoanalytic theory posits that the mind is like an iceberg. The conscious mind represents the tip, containing our current awareness. Beneath the surface lies the preconscious, holding thoughts and memories that can be easily recalled. The vast, submerged portion is the unconscious, a reservoir of repressed desires, fears, and traumatic experiences that influence our actions without our awareness. ​ Psychosexual Stages: Freud proposed that personality develops through a series of psychosexual stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital), each associated with a specific erogenous zone and psychological challenge. Fixations or unresolved conflicts at any stage can impact adult personality. ​ Structure of Personality: Freud conceptualized personality as composed of three interacting structures: ○​ Id: The primitive, instinctual part of the personality driven by the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of needs and desires.  ○​ Ego: The rational part of the personality that mediates between the id and the external world, operating on the reality principle. ○​ Superego: The moral part of the personality that represents internalized societal and parental standards, acting as a conscience. ​ Defence Mechanisms: The ego employs defence mechanisms (e.g., repression, denial, projection) to protect the individual from anxiety arising from conflicts between the id, ego, and superego. ​ Psychoanalysis as Therapy: Psychoanalytic theory also gave rise to a therapeutic approach called psychoanalysis. It involves techniques like free association, dream analysis, and transference to bring unconscious conflicts into conscious awareness, enabling individuals to gain insight and resolve psychological issues. Core Idea: Kohlberg proposed that moral development occurs in a series of six stages, which are organized into three levels. Each stage represents a distinct way of thinking about right and wrong. He argued that individuals progress through these stages sequentially, with each stage building upon the previous one. Levels and Stages: ​ Level 1: Preconvention Morality ○​ Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation: Moral decisions are based on avoiding punishment and obeying authority. ○​ Stage 2: Self-Interest Orientation: Actions are guided by what benefits oneself, with a focus on satisfying personal needs. ​ Level 2: Conventional Morality ○​ Stage 3: Interpersonal Accord and Conformity: Moral judgments are based on maintaining social relationships and gaining approval from others. ○​ Stage 4: Authority and Maintaining Social Order: Emphasis is placed on upholding laws, rules, and social order to ensure stability and prevent chaos. ​ Level 3: Postconventional Morality​ ○​ Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation: Individuals recognize that laws and rules are social agreements that can be changed if they no longer serve the best interests of society. There's an emphasis on individual rights and democratic processes. ○​ Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle Orientation: Moral reasoning is based on abstract, universal ethical principles like justice, human dignity, and equality. Individuals follow their conscience even if it conflicts with laws or social norms. Key Features of Kohlberg's Theory: ​ Moral Dilemmas: Kohlberg used hypothetical moral dilemmas (like the famous "Heinz Dilemma") to assess individuals' stages of moral development. He was more interested in the reasoning behind their choices than the choices themselves.  ​ Cognitive Development: Kohlberg believed that moral development is linked to cognitive development. As individuals' thinking abilities become more sophisticated, their moral reasoning also advances. ​ Sequential Stages: The stages are hierarchical and sequential. Individuals must progress through each stage in order; they cannot skip stages. ​ Not Everyone Reaches the Highest Stages: Kohlberg suggested that not everyone reaches the post-conventional level. Many people remain at the conventional level throughout their lives. Influence and Criticisms: Kohlberg's theory has been highly influential in psychology, education, and other fields. It has provided valuable insights into the development of moral reasoning and has stimulated much research on moral development. However, it has also faced criticism: ​ Gender Bias: Critics, like Carol Gilligan, argued that Kohlberg's theory was biased towards male perspectives, as it emphasized justice and abstract principles, which were seen as more "male" values. Gilligan proposed that women tend to prioritize care and relationships in their moral reasoning. ​ Cultural Bias: Some researchers argue that Kohlberg's theory is culturally biased, as it reflects Western individualistic values and may not adequately capture moral reasoning in collectivist cultures. ​ Moral Reasoning vs. Moral Behavior: Kohlberg's theory focuses on moral reasoning, but there is a difference between thinking morally and acting morally. People may reason at a higher stage but not always behave accordingly. Schemas are a fundamental concept in Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Here's how they relate: What are Schemes? ​ Mental Frameworks: Schemas are like mental blueprints or frameworks that help us organize and interpret information about the world. They are categories of knowledge that we develop through experience. ​ ​ Building Blocks of Knowledge: Think of schemas as the building blocks of our understanding. They help us make sense of new information by connecting it to what we already know. ​ ​ Dynamic and Evolving: Schemas are not fixed; they change and adapt as we gain new experiences. ​ How Schemas Relate to Piaget's Theory ​ Cognitive Development: Piaget believed that cognitive development is driven by the development and refinement of schemas. As children grow, their schemas become more complex and sophisticated, allowing them to understand the world in more nuanced ways. ​ Assimilation and Accommodation: Piaget described two key processes through which schemas develop: ○​ Assimilation: Fitting new information into existing schemas. For example, a child who has a schema for "dog" might initially call any four-legged animal a "dog." ○​ Accommodation: Changing existing schemas to fit new information. When the child learns that not all four-legged animals are dogs (e.g., cats, horses), they modify their "dog" schema to include only specific characteristics. ​ Stages of Development: Piaget's four stages of cognitive development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational) are characterized by the types of schemas children develop and how they use them to understand the world. Examples of Schemas ​ Object Schemas: A baby's schema for a rattle might include its appearance, how it feels, and the sounds it makes. ​ Person Schemas: You might have a schema for "librarian" that includes characteristics like being quiet, helpful, and knowledgeable. ​ Event Schemas: Your schema for "going to a restaurant" might include steps like ordering food, eating, and paying the bill. ​ Social Schemas: These are schemas about how people behave in social situations. Importance of Schemas ​ Organizing Knowledge: Schemas help us organize and categorize information, making it easier to remember and retrieve. ​ Making Predictions: Schemas allow us to make predictions about what might happen in certain situations based on our past experiences. ​ Guiding Behavior: Schemas can influence our behaviour by providing us with expectations about how to act in different situations.​ ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER ADHD -​ It's a neurodevelopmental disorder It is characterized by a president pattern of inattention, hyperactivity, and or impulsivity that interferes with functioning or development. TREATMENT OF ADHD ​ Stimulants such as Ritalin are the most widespread treatments  -​ These do not make them more hyperactive but enable them to focus better and improve their attention -​ Children sho improved cognitive academic performance -​ Controversial: crisis against suppressing physical growth and loss effect over conser about overuse/issues Conduct Disorder -​ Persistently breaking rules or violating others rights (at least 6 months) -​ lying, stealing setting fires -​ Low tolerance to frustration; y have temper flare-ups -​ Tend to blame others for trouble they get into; believe they are misunderstood and treated unfairly -​ Academic achievement is usually below grade level Origins of conduct disorder -​ Genetic component: more likely biological than the adoptive parents of adopted children with conduct disorders -​ Antisocial family members: deviant peers -​ Parenta; insensitivity to children's behaviour -​ Family stress -​ Correlation with playing video games -​ Attending school with many peers having conduct disorders Treatment of conduct disorder -​ Cognitive behavioural techniques involving parent training -​ Interventions where children's behaviour is monitored closely consequences like time outs for unacceptable behaviour and physical punishments are avoided and positive social behaviour is rewarded -​ Teaching emotion regulation skills -​ Teaching children skills and how to use problem-solving to manage interpersonal; conflicts. DYSLEXIA -​ Affects 5-17.5% of children -​ Much more common in boys than girls -​ Focuses on remediations in childhood; focuses on accommodations in college and live -​ Origins; sensory, neurological and genetic factors -​ Drug atomoxetine (Strattera) found to help both ADHD and dyslexia Mary Ainsworth's attachment -​ is a deep and enduring emotional bond that connects a child to their primary caregiver. who came up with the concept of reinforcement and behaviouralism -​ B.F. SKINNER Moral realism -​ Is the philosophical view that some objective moral facts or truths exist independently of people's opinions or beliefs -​ Moral realism remains a significant influential view in ethics Key aspects ​ Objective moral facts - moral realists believe that moral statements can be true or false ​ Mind independent - moral facts exist independently of human minds or opinions. ​ Knowledge of moral facts - moral realists believe that we can have life moral facts, even if it is sometimes difficult to determine what they are Gardener spoke about the different intelligence based on different parts of the brain. ​ Linguistic -verbal intelligence; involves sensitivity to spoken and written language the ability to learn languages and the capacity to use language to accomplish goals - brocades and Wernicke's left hemisphere are crucial for language processing ​ Logical-mathematical intelligence - this consists of the capacity to canalize problems logically, carry out mathematical operations and investigate issues scientifically - parietal lobe - left. ​ Musical rhythmic intelligence - This involves the capacity to recognize and manipulate the patterns of wide space as well as the patterns of more confined areas. The occipital lobes and the right parietal lobe are key regions. ​ Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: This entails the potential of using one's whole body or parts of the body to solve problems or to fashion products or ideas. The motor cortex and cerebellum ​ Interpersonal Intelligence: This represents the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations, and desires of other people and, consequently, to work effectively with others. The prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and other limbic system ​ Intrapersonal Intelligence: This involves the capacity to understand oneself, to have an effective working model of oneself—including desires, fears, and capacities—and to use such information to regulate one's own life. The prefrontal cortex and limbic system  ​ Naturalistic Intelligence: This involves the capacity to recognize and classify plants, animals, and other objects in nature. The visual cortex and other sensory areas are involved in recognizing and categorizing natural stimuli. ​ Existential Intelligence: This involves the inclination to ponder "deep" questions, such as the meaning of life, why we are here, or what happens after death. The prefrontal cortex and other higher-order brain regions Stats of shuddering Age of onset: Shuddering attacks usually begin between 6 months and 3 years of age, with the average age of onset being around 13 months. ​ Frequency: The frequency of shuddering attacks can vary widely, from a few times a day to over 100 times a day. ​ ​ Duration: Each episode of shuddering typically lasts only a few seconds. ​ ​ Triggers: Shuddering attacks can be triggered by various factors, such as excitement, stress, or sudden movements. ​ Prognosis: Shuddering attacks are generally harmless and tend to resolve on their own by the time the child reaches school age.​ The transfer used for the transfer of control from parent to child is - autonomy Object permanence Object permanence is a cognitive milestone in a child's development where they understand that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight. This is a fundamental concept that helps children make sense of the world around them. Here's a breakdown of object permanence: ​ What it is: Imagine a baby playing with a toy. If you cover the toy with a cloth, a baby without object permanence might think the toy has disappeared completely. However, a baby with object permanence will understand that the toy is still there, even though they can't see it. They might try to reach for the toy under the cloth.​ ​ Why it's important: Object permanence is crucial for several reasons:​ ○​ Understanding the world: It helps children understand that the world is made up of stable and permanent objects, not just things that appear and disappear. ○​ Developing memory: It shows that children can hold a mental representation of an object in their mind, even when it's not physically present.  ○​ Foundation for further learning: It's a building block for more complex cognitive skills like symbolic thinking and language development. ​ When it develops: Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget was the first to study object permanence in infants. He believed that it develops gradually between 8 to 12 months of age. However, more recent research suggests that infants may understand object permanence earlier than Piaget initially thought, possibly as early as 4 to 7 months.​ ​ How to help a child develop object permanence: You can encourage object permanence development through play:​ ○​ Peek-a-boo: This classic game is a great way to help babies understand that you still exist even when you cover your eyes. ○​ Hiding toys: Hide a toy under a blanket or behind your back and encourage your baby to find it. ○​ Object permanence box: This toy has a hole where babies can drop a ball, which then reappears, helping them understand that the ball still exists even when they can't see it.