Midterm 1-Chapters 1,3,4,5 PDF

Chapter 1 -Psychology: a science that studies behaviour and the physiological and mental processes that underlie it -Overt behaviour: observable behaviours (parents yelling, animal salivating) -Covert behaviour: non-observable behaviour...

Chapter 1 -Psychology: a science that studies behaviour and the physiological and mental processes that underlie it -Overt behaviour: observable behaviours (parents yelling, animal salivating) -Covert behaviour: non-observable behaviour (change in blood pressure, dreaming) -Adjustment: physiological processes through which people manage/cope with the demands of every day life -The scienti c approach to behaviour: knowledge should be acquired through systematic observation rather than speculation -Experimental research: manipulating a variable (IV) under controlled conditions, and observing if this results in a change to another variable (DV) (allows us to draw conclusions about cause and e ect) Independent Variable: condition that is varied, to see its impact on DV Dependent Variable: variable that is thought to be a ected by manipulating IV Experimental Group: participants who receives the treatment we are investigating Control Group: participants who don’t receive special treatment -Correlational Research: make systematic observations to see whether an association between them exists. Used when we cant experimentally control the variables we want to study Positive Correlation: as one variable increases, so does the other (2 things same direction) Negative Correlation: as one variable increases, the other decreases (2 things opposing direction) -Data collection methods: natural observations, interviews, questionnaires, tests, physiological measures, archived records -Ine ective self help books: vague messages, not based on scienti c research, don’t provide directions for changing behaviour, encourage narcissism -E ective self help books: realistic, basis in research, authors with good credentials, provide directions for altering behaviour ff ff fi ff ff fi  -Non important roots of happiness: money, age, gender, parenthood, intelligence, physical attractiveness -Very important roots of happiness: romantic relationships, work, genetic predisposition (extraversion +, neuroticism -) -Fixed mindset: believing that ones abilities or intelligence is a xed trait that cannot be changed -Growth mindset: believing that ones abilities or intelligence is changeable and that hard work pays o (tend to do better in school) -The method of loci: memorizing words and associating each one with a familiar location -What is the di erence between an acrostic and an acronym?: Acronyms: OCEAN = openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, neuroticism Acrostics: Old people from Texas eat spiders = occipital, parietal, frontal, temporal, ethmoid, sphenoid Chapter 3 -Stress: any circumstances that threaten or are perceived to threaten ones well being, thus limiting ones coping abilities (major and minor stressors) Ambient/environmental stress: chronic, negative conditions in the environment (pollution, tra c, crowding, poverty) Acute stressors: threatening events that have a short duration and clear endpoint Chronic stressors: threatening events that have a long duration and no time limit Anticipatory stressors: upcoming events that are perceived to be a threat -Appraisal of stress: stimulus event -> primary appraisal (threatening or not) -> secondary appraisal (adequate coping resources or not) -> stress or no stress -Stress is debilitating mindset: view stress as harmful (most common mindset) -Stress is enhancing mindset: view stress as a challenge/opportunity for growth ffi ff ff fi  -Psychological sources of stress: frustration, internal con ict, life changes, pressure to perform, pressure to conform -Emotional responses to stress: can be negative or positive emotions Inverted U hypothesis: a moderate amount of emotional arousal is bene cial for performance Level at which performance for a task peaks, is called the optimal level of arousal (lower for complex tasks, higher for easy tasks) -Physiological responses to stress: autonomic nervous system regulates involuntary bodily functions Parasympathetic: conserves body resources, DEACTIVATES ght or ight Sympathetic: mobilizes body resources for emergencies, ACTIVATES ght or ight -General adaptation syndrome: alarm, resistance, exhaustion -Brain-body pathway #1: hypothalamus activates ANS, stimulating adrenals to release increased catecholamines into blood -Brain-body pathway #2: hypothalamus activates pituitary, stimulating the adrenal gland to release increased corticosteroids (cortisol) into blood -Behavioural responses to stress: healthy or unhealthy, result of coping or active e orts to master, reduce or tolerate the demands created by stress -Potential e ects of stress: Impaired attention (jump to conclusions) Reduced e ciency of working memory (unable to process and manipulate new info, in times of stress) PTSD Acute stress disorder (shortened PTSD) Adjustment disorders (emotional or behavioural symptoms remaining after stressor terminated) Posttraumatic growth Mental toughness -Factors in uencing stress tolerance: moderator variables (social support, hardiness, optimism) -3 types of Internal con ict: approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, approach- avoidance ff ffi fl ff fl fl fi fl fi fi fl  -Positive emotions can also occur during times of stress: Studies have found that people experience a diverse array of positive emotions while enduring very stressful circumstances Chapter 4 -Coping: the active e orts to reduce, or tolerate the demands created by stress -Coping exibility: the ability to use multiple coping strategies, to then choose which one to use, based on the situation -Common coping patterns: giving up (learned helplessness), aggression (catharsis), indulging yourself (shopping, overeating, over-consuming), pathological technology use (doomscrolling), self blame, defensive mechanisms (denial, fantasy, intellectualization, undoing, overcompensating), positive illusions, -Constructive coping: confronting problems, e ort, realistic appraisals of stress and coping resources, self control Appraisal focused strategies: disputing negative self talk, positive reinterpretation, nding humour Problem focused strategies: active problem solving, social support, time management, self control, becoming assertive Emotion focused strategies: releasing pent up emotion, distraction, managing hostile feelings, exercise, meditation, sleep, nature -Relaxation response: will only occur with a quiet environment, mental device (word/ phrase/ object that helps one relax), passive attitude, comfy position -Stress can cause many psychological disorders: insomnia, depression, anxiety, substance abuse, schizophrenia, ED -Learned helplessness: passive behaviour produced by exposure to unavoidable aversive events learned helplessness can occur in the real world when one is dealing with a stressor. they give up when there is an opportunity to adaptively cope. People’s cognitive interpretation of aversive events determines whether they develop learned helplessness -Ellis ABC model: people can short circuit their emotional reactions to stress by altering their appraisals of stressful events A (activating event): stress- getting stood up on a date fi fl ff ff  B (belief system): irrational appraisal- I must be a worthless person, rational appraisal- ill nd someone someday who is dependable C (consequence): emotional turmoil- angry and anxious etc, emotional calm- remain hopeful -Expressing emotions: trying to suppress emotions, results in increased stress (you should express emotions by opening up/talking to someone) Chapter 5 -Personality, emotion and heart disease: personality can in uence physical health -Coronary heart disease: leading cause of death in USA, caused by STRESS (possibly linked to type A personality due to anger and hostility traits) -Type A personality: compiled of a strong competitive orientation, impatience and time urgency, anger and cynical hostility -Type B personality: relaxed, patient, easy going, amicable behaviour -Depression and heart disease: being diagnosed with heart disease makes people depressed, and being depressed doubles ones chances of getting heart disease -Stress and cancer: no direct link, but stress can in uence the course of the disease -Stress and immune system function: positive correlation between stress and immune system suppression (common cold) -Leading behavioural causes of death: smoking/vaping (quitting before 40, reduces death risk by 90%), alcohol, unsafe driving, guns, risky sex behaviour, drugs, overeating -Nutrition: high fat causes heart disease and cancer, high cholesterol causes heart disease, low bre causes heart disease, high salt causes hypertension -Criticism about food pyramid: Failure to distinguish among di erent types of fat, di erent forms of carbohydrates, and di erent sources of protein ff fi fi ff fl fl ff -Exercise: decreases risk of heart issues, cancers, obesity, and anxiety, while increasing happiness, self esteem and mental health -Reactions to illness: some people seek help, while others are non-adherent to treatment (failure to begin a treatment, stopping early, reducing or increasing prescribed levels) -Tolerance: progressive decrease in a persons response to a drug -Physical dependence: when someone has to continue taking the drug to avoid bad withdrawals -Psychological dependence: when someone must continue taking the drug to satisfy their mental craving for it