PSYC 203: Adjusting to Modern Life - Psychology

CH.1 ADJUSTING TO MODERN LIFE ​ Behavior Any response or activity by an organism ✵ Overt-observable behaviors (animal salivating, parents yelling at you) ✵ Covert- non-observable behaviors (i.e. rise in blood pressure, dreaming) Scientists conduct research to test their hypotheses (prediction...

CH.1 ADJUSTING TO MODERN LIFE ​ Behavior Any response or activity by an organism ✵ Overt-observable behaviors (animal salivating, parents yelling at you) ✵ Covert- non-observable behaviors (i.e. rise in blood pressure, dreaming) Scientists conduct research to test their hypotheses (prediction) on behaviors. Psychology is committed to empiricism (the idea that knowledge should be acquired through systematic observation rather than speculation, beliefs, or common sense. ​ Experimental Research To determine the cause of behavior, i.e., can a relaxation exercise reduce test anxiety? Uses a hypothesis that can be tested through scientists manipulating a variable (the independent variable) and observing if it causes a change in another variable (the dependent variable). In experimental research, there is an experimental group (the group that receives the IV being investigated) and a control group (the group that does not receive the IV). *Cause and effect ​ ****Groups should not have systematic differences and should be generally similar (i.e. all college students, etc.) ✵ Advantages: It allows us to draw conclusions about cause and effect ✵ Disadvantages: Not all variables can be manipulated, and ethical and practical concerns (i.e. research on smoking) ​ Correlational Research To determine relationships between behaviors, i.e. is lower sleep quality associated with lower grades? This type of research is used when we can't control variables in an experiment, but can still study how they are related through correlation. This research measures whether two variables are connected or related and helps researchers find patterns and connections when they can't directly manipulate the variables. Instead of testing cause and effect, it looks for patterns in how the variables change together (i.e. Do people who sleep more tend to feel less stressed? A correlation study can find out if there’s a connection.) The relationship between variables is measured using a number called a correlation coefficient. Correlation shows a relationship but it doesn't prove one variable causes the other (i.e. Ice cream sales and drowning deaths might be positively correlated because both happen more in summer, not because one causes the other.) Directions of the Relationship: ✵ Positive Correlation - When one variable increases, the other also increases (i.e. more study time = better grades) ✵ Negative Correlation - When one variable increases, the other decreases (i.e. more stress = less sleep) The correlation coefficient ranges from -1.0 to +1.0, the closer it is to +1.0 or -1.0, the stronger the relationship is. The closer to 0, the weaker or absent the relationship is. ✵ Advantages: we cant study variables that could not be studied with experiments due to ethical and practical constraints ✵Disadvantages: Can't demonstrate causality (cannot prove that one variable directly causes changes in the other.), Other variables may influence the observed relationship, making it harder to pinpoint the exact cause. ​ Adjustment The psychological processes through which people manage/cope with the demands of everyday life. Stress and coping, personality, friendships and family, learning and memory, careers, and mental and physical health ​ Scientific Approach to Behavior Psychologists use the scientific method to study behavior and mental processes (research and evidence are relied on to understand how and why people act the way they do). This method helps ensure that conclusions about behavior are based on facts, not just personal beliefs or assumptions. By studying behavior systematically, they can find evidence-based ways to improve mental health, learning, or social interactions. Scientific Method - 1.​ Make observations - i.e. no studies have examined sleep and academic achievement in Canadian 1st year students 2.​ Hypothesis - i.e. better sleep patterns with 1st year students will be associated with higher academic achievement (based on theory and research) 3.​ Operationalize concepts - i.e. how would I define sleep? How would I define achievement? What measures will I use? 4.​ Choose a method/design - i.e. what research design would I use to study my variables? 5.​ Sample ✵ Testing Hypotheses - Scientists create hypotheses and test them through experiments and observations to find out if they are viable ✵ Empiricism - knowledge comes from careful observation and data not just opinions, guesses, or common sense. Psychology heavily relies on this. Data collection methods 1.​ Naturalistic Observations - Observing behavior in its natural setting without interfering. Provides real, unaltered behavior. Useful for understanding behaviors in everyday contexts. Can't control variables, observers need to avoid influencing the environment. I.e. Studying how children play on a playground to learn about social interaction. 2.​ Interviews - asking people questions directly to understand their thoughts, feelings, or experiences. Provides detailed, personal information and can clarify unclear responses. However, responses may be biased or incomplete, and interviews are time-consuming. 3.​ Questionnaires - written or online surveys. Individuals can report on their own behaviors, thoughts, or feelings or can describe somebody's behavior. Helps collect data from many people quickly and uses standardized questions to make comparisons easier. However, people may not answer honestly, and there can be limited depth compared to interviews. 4.​ Standardized Tests - tests designed to consistently measure specific skills/abilities/traits. It allows comparison across individuals or groups and is a reliable tool. Though they may not capture all aspects of behavior or ability, results can be influenced by test conditions or anxiety. 5.​ Physiological Measures - measuring biological responses to understand behavior or emotions. It provides objective data not influenced by self-report bias and is useful for studying emotions, stress, or health. It requires specialized equipment and expertise and can be expensive/time-consuming. 6.​ Archived Records - Using existing data such as school, medical, or historical records. It provides access to large amounts of data without new data collection and is useful for studying trends over time. Limited by the quality and completeness of existing records and may not include all the information researchers need. ​ Self-Help Books ✵ Pros - Reading evidence-based self-help books results in meaningful improvements in mental health. ✵ Cons - Can be ineffective or provide potentially damaging guidance. What Makes a Bad Self-Help Book? - Psychobabble (messages or advice that sound psychological but lack real value or scientific basis). Often the advice is unclear and unhelpful, not based on solid research or evidence, and doesn’t give clear steps to improve behavior while promoting focusing only on yourself without considering how your actions affect others. It can encourage selfish behavior and fails to address real issues effectively. What Makes a Good Self-Help Book? - Realistic expectations (doesn't promise quick or unrealistic results), credible authors, based on research, clear guidance (step-by-step advice to help you make real changes). And a specific focus (targets a particular problem or behavior). ​ Roots of Happiness What affects happiness? ✵ Least Important - Money (there's a weak link between income and happiness, even in poor countries), Age, Gender, Parenthood (mixed experiences cancel each other out), Intelligence, Physical Attractiveness (doesn't affect happiness despite social benefits) ✵ Somewhat Important - Health (happier people are healthier and live longer), Social Connections (good relationships and social interactions boost happiness), Religious Beliefs (faith is linked to higher happiness), Culture (wealthier nations tend to report more happiness) ✵ Most Important - Romantic Relationships (married people are generally happier than single or divorced people), Work (job satisfaction strongly impacts happiness), Genetics (personality traits such as extraversion has a positive link to happiness whereas neuroticism has a negative link to happiness) ​ Mindset Fixed Mindset - Belief that one's abilities or intelligence is a fixed trait that cannot be changed. I.e. I’m too shy to speak up in class and am worried my answers will be wrong Growth Mindset - Belief that one's abilities or intelligence is changeable and that hard work pays off. I.e. I can become more confident and improve my public speaking skills with practice and advice. ​ Students with a growth mindset do better in school. The Nature of Stress Stress: Any circumstances that threaten or are perceived to threaten one's well-being and thereby tax one's coping abilities -major stressors -minor stressors Both major and minor stressors can have a significant impact on mental health Minor stressors are detrimental to mental health because: It might be because they have a cumulative effect, especially true for those who ruminate/become preoccupied with them The experience of stress is subjective -Experiencing “threat” depends on what events you notice and how you interpret or “appraise” them -Depending on one’s appraisal, an event can be interpreted as stressful or not -The same occurrence could be stressful for some people but not for others More generally speaking, interpreting a situation in a more negative way is associated with more stress symptoms Stress-is-debilitating mindset: view stress as generally harmful, most people have this mindset Stress-is-enhancing mindset: view stress as a challenge and opportunity for growth -Helps people cope better with stress -Associated with better cognitive and emotional responses to stress Ambient (environmental) stress: Chronic, negative conditions embedded in the environment →Excessive noise, traffic, pollution →Crowding →Poverty Stress is influenced by culture Culture: made up of a group’s widely shared beliefs, customs, and values that are transmitted socially across generations -Cultures vary greatly regarding the forms of stress their people experience -A culture may experience a stressor that is unique to that group (e.g., food crisis in West Africa) -There are also specific race/ethnicity-related stressors (e.g., discrimination, acculturation) that can impact mental and physical health Acculturation: Changing to adapt to a new culture -Can be a major source of stress Major sources of stress Acute stressors: -Threatening events that have a relatively short duration and a clear endpoint Chronic stressors: -Threatening events that have a relatively long duration and no readily apparent time limit Anticipatory stressors: -Upcoming or future events that are perceived to be threatening -Can affect us psychologically and physically just as strongly as actual stressors Psychological sources of stress Frustration: any situation in which the pursuit of a goal is thwarted Internal conflict: occurs when two or more incompatible motivations or behavioural impulses compete for expression Types of Conflict Life changes: any noticeable alterations in one’s living circumstances that require readjustment  Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) People with higher scores on the SRRS tend to be more vulnerable to many kinds of physical and psychological illnesses Why? What type of stress could it be measuring? Pressure: involves expectations or demands that one behave in a certain way -Pressure to perform -Pressure to conform -Self-imposed pressure Responding to Stress We analyze people’s responses to stress on 3 levels: ​ Emotional responses to stress ​ Physiological responses to stress ​ Behavioral responses to stress Emotions: powerful, largely uncontrollable feelings accompanied by physiological changes Common negative emotional reactions to stress include: -Annoyance, anger, and rage -Apprehension, anxiety, and fear -Dejection, sadness, and grief Positive emotions can also occur during times of stress: -Studies have found that people experience a diverse array of positive emotions while enduring very stressful circumstances -Emotional functioning of caregiving partners of men with AIDS -Emotional functioning in weeks following 911 terrorist attacks Inverted U Hypothesis: A moderate amount of emotional arousal is beneficial for performance; task performance should improve with increased emotional arousal- up to a point -The level at which performance peaks is called the optimal level of arousal for a task -The optimal level of arousal is lower for more complex tasks and higher for easier tasks Physiological responses to stress: Autonomic nervous system (ANS): Nerves from the brain that connect to the heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles, and glands; regulates involuntary bodily functions Two divisions: Parasympathetic: conserves bodily resources, controls processes of daily living (e.g., digestion, elimination), deactivates for flight or fight response Sympathetic: Mobilizes bodily resources for emergencies -Fight or flight response: a physiological reaction to a threat that mobilizes an organism to attack (fight) or flee (flight) an enemy -A prolonged state of fight or flight is thought to be a key contributor to the stress and health relationship →Hans Selye (1930s+; McGill Uni) studied animals’ physiological reactions to unpleasant stimuli -The pattern of physiological responses he observed was generally the same despite different stressful stimuli -He coined this nonspecific response: stress General Adaptation Syndrome (Selye): Describes the pattern of physiological response all species experience when responding to stress Alarm - shock, mobilize resources Resistance - if threat continues-heightened physiological arousal, coping Exhaustion - if the threat continues too long, bodily resources are depleted, physical exhaustion, susceptibility to illness, diseases of adaptation Two brain-body pathways control our physiological responses to stress via signals to the endocrine system Endocrine system: consists of glands that secrete chemicals (hormones) into the bloodstream Pathway 1: The Hypothalamus activates the ANS, which stimulates adrenal glands, which then release increased catecholamines into the bloodstream Pathway 2: Hypothalamus activates the pituitary gland, which stimulates the adrenal gland to release increased corticosteroids (e.g., cortisol) into the bloodstream Catecholamines and corticosteroids are the two categories of stress hormones that are key to our body’s stress responses (e.g., fight or flight, immune suppression) Behavioral responses to stress: Behavioral responses to stress are usually the result of coping or active efforts to master, reduce, or tolerate the demands created by stress Coping responses may be: Healthy(e.g., actively trying to solve a problem by asking for help or generating solutions) Unhealthy (e.g., ignoring problems, indulging in alcohol or drugs, excessive eating) The potential effects of stress: ​ impaired task performance/cognitive functioning ​ Too much stress can negatively impact performance on a variety of tasks ​ Baumeister (1984)- Pressure to perform makes us self-conscious, which decreases performance in one of 2 ways: ​ Distraction ​ Over-focus -Impaired cognitive functioning →Stress can impair attention Study (Keinan, 11987)- Stress condition vs. no-stress condition— when solving problems, stressed participants were more likely to jump to conclusions too quickly and not properly review all available options →Stress can reduce the efficiency of working memory In stressful situations, there is evidence that people are not able to process and manipulate new information as effectively as they usually would But interestingly, mild to moderate stress has also been shown to enhance memory, especially for more emotional memories Burnout: a syndrome involving physical and emotional exhaustion, cynicism, and a lowered sense of self-efficacy that is attributable to work-related issues Factors that promote burnout: -Work overload, interpersonal conflicts, lack of control over responsibilities and outcomes, and inadequate recognition of one’s work →Associated with: increased absenteeism, decreased productivity, and physical ailments such as diabetes, heart disease, and headaches. Found in many cultures all over the world Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): involves enduring psychological disturbance attributed to the experience of a major traumatic events Symptoms include: -Re-experiencing trauma via nightmares, flashbacks -Emotional numbing, alienation, problems in social relations -Elevated arousal, anxiety, and guilt -Sleep disturbance Other less severe stress disorders Acute stress disorder: PTSD symptoms but for a shorter duration following trauma (3 days- 1 month) Adjustment disorders: Emotional or behavioral symptoms in response to one or more stressors cause distress; once the stressor is terminated, symptoms must be remitted within 6 months -Has specifiers (e.g., with anxiety, anxiety, and depression, disturbance of conduct) Physical illness The idea that stress can cause physical ailments began in the 1930s Psychosomatic diseases(1950s): were defined as genuine physical ailments thought to be caused in part by stress, especially emotional distress →Common psychosomatic diseases included: High blood pressure, peptic ulcers, asthma, eczema and hives, migraine, and tension headache The term no longer used as stress may contribute to the development of a diverse array of other diseases previously thought to be purely physical in origin -Heart disease, stroke, gastrointestinal disorders, tuberculosis, multiple sclerosis, arthritis, diabetes, cancer, various types of infectious diseases, and likely many others Positive effects Stress can promote positive psychological change- post-traumatic growth -This is evident in people who have faced various stressful circumstances -It can force people to develop new skills, reevaluate priorities, nourish relationships, and acquire new strengths -Exposure to a moderate amount of stress can also increase stress tolerance, build mental toughness →One study (Seery 2011) found those who experienced a moderate amount of stressful events were healthier than those who experienced few stressful events Factors Influencing Stress Tolerance Why are some people better able to handle stress than others? Moderator variables -can soften the impact of stress on physical and mental health 3 main moderator variables: ​ Social support ​ Hardiness ​ Optimism Influence people’s emotional, physical, and behavioral responses to stress Social support: various types of comfort and aid are provided by members of one’s social network Studies have found that social support acts as a buffer in times of high stress, reducing the negative impact of stressful events, buffer hypothesis -In the workplace, social support has been found to reduce the prevalence of burnout -Social support also appears to be a key factor in reducing the risk of PTSD among veterans -And social support increases the likelihood of posttraumatic growth How does social support reduce stress? -Encourages healthy behaviors (e.g., exercise, socializing, check-ups) -Discourages unhealthy behaviors (e.g., drinking, rumination) -Promotes constructive coping strategies -Might also... help make appraisals of situations more positive and dampen the intensity of physiological responses to stress Hardiness: a disposition marked by commitment, challenge, and control that is associated with strong stress resistance -Studies have found that those who are ‘hardier’ are less susceptible to the negative impacts of stress -High-stress executives who stayed healthy had higher hardiness compared to high stress executives who had illnesses (Kobasa, 1984) -In war veterans, higher hardiness has been associated with a decreased risk of PTSD (King et al., 1988) and increased posttraumatic growth (Bartone & Bowles, 2021) -Hardiness may reduce the effects of stress by making appraisals or coping more positive Optimism: a general tendency to expect good outcomes -Optimists cope with stress in more adaptive ways →Engage in action-oriented, problem-focused, carefully planned coping and are more willing to seek social support; pessimists deal with stress by avoiding it, giving up, or using denial -Optimism has been associated with better mental and physical health in countries all over the world Coping Processes The Concept Of Coping Coping: refers to active efforts to master, reduce, or tolerate the demands created by stress -​ One literature review found more than 400 coping strategies that people use to deal with stress Coping flexibility: the ability to use multiple coping strategies; it is more adaptive to use a variety of strategies →Then, you can make a choice of which strategy to use based on the situation, If one strategy doesn’t work, you can try another -​ Associated with positive mental health outcomes, increased resilience, decreased suicidal thoughts, and reduced depression, anxiety, and distress -Coping strategies vary in their adaptive value Common Coping Patterns Of Limited Value Giving up (behavioral disengagement): when confronted with stress, people just sometimes give up/ drop their goal or situation (e.g., quit a job, drop a course)  -​ Seligman (1974): Animals subjected to electric shocks they couldn’t escape, then given the opportunity to learn a response that would allow them to escape, many didn’t even try to learn- lost hope, gave up -​ Hiroto & Seligman (1975): Similar procedure in humans, used inescapable noise, same results! Learned helplessness: passive behavior produced by exposure to unavoidable aversive events →Just like in the laboratory experiments, learned helplessness can occur in the real world when one is dealing with a stressor… they give up when there is an opportunity to cope adaptively -​ People’s cognitive interpretation of aversive events determines whether they develop learned helplessness Aggression: any behavior intended to hurt someone, either physically or verbally; can result from frustration and/or anger -​ The high physiological arousal associated with anger can impair thinking/reasoning abilities and behavioral control -​ More intense anger increases the risk of aggression Freud theorized that behaving aggressively could get pent-up emotion out of one’s system and thus be adaptive -​ He coined the term catharsis to refer to this release of emotional tension -​ The idea of benefiting from releasing pent-up anger and rage has been widely accepted and is still very popular today What does the research say about catharsis?-->Research has generally not supported the catharsis hypothesis -​ Most studies actually find the opposite: behaving aggressively tends to fuel more anger and aggression In Bushman’s (2001) groundbreaking review of violent video games, he found that playing was associated with increased aggression, physiological arousal, aggressive thoughts, as well as decreased prosocial behaviors What happens when one uses aggression as a coping strategy? -​ Usually, it backfires as it elicits aggressive responses from others and generates more anger and...conflicts with others often emerge from aggressive behavior, which then creates more stress -​ Further, as discussed, aggression towards inanimate objects or within video games has actually been associated with increased aggression Indulging yourself -​ Stress sometimes leads to a form of poor impulse control, self-indulgence, or the inability to resist the gratification of whims and desires (e.g., eating comfort food, drinking, gambling, shopping) -​ There is nothing inherently maladaptive about indulging oneself to cope with stress, but if consistent over-indulgence occurs, problems are likely to develop. Comfort foods can decrease loneliness, but over-consumption can lead to an unhealthy diet and related health consequences Stress-induced shopping -Zheng et al. 2020, studied the relationships between stress, materialism, and compulsive shopping One group was in a war zone under intense daily stress; the other group was not in a war zone →Stress increased compulsive shopping and was particularly common in highly materialistic people Pathological technology use Doomscrolling: persistently seeking out negative information on social media; during COVID-19 it was associated with depression, anxiety, and alcohol use Blaming yourself: When confronted by stress (especially pressure), people often become highly self-critical, blaming themselves, when in reality there are usually many factors that contribute to a stressor →Being highly self-critical backfires and is actually associated with increased stress →Self-blame is associated with increased distress and depression for those who have experienced various traumas such as war, sexual assault, natural disasters Using defensive coping Defense mechanisms: largely unconscious reactions that protect a person from unpleasant emotions such as anxiety and guilt Shield us from emotional discomfort caused by stress Most involve a degree of self-deception, a distortion of reality Most people use them on a fairly regular basis! Examples of defense mechanisms frequently used to cope with stress: ​ Denial- refusal to acknowledge the stressor/unpleasant realities of one’s life ​ Fantasy- fulfilling wishes/impulses in one’s imagination ​ Intellectualization- dealing with difficulties by looking at them in a detached way, suppressing one’s emotional reactions ​ Undoing- counteracting guilt through acts of atonement ​ Overcompensation- making up for real or imagined deficiencies by focussing on or exaggerating desirable self-characteristics Are defense mechanisms healthy? In general, they are poor ways of coping and reflect avoidance strategies -​ Avoidance coping is associated with increased stressors, depressive symptoms, and poor health (i.e., delay facing health concerns) -​ Positive illusions (a type of defense mechanism) may sometimes be adaptive to stress and mental health (Taylor, 2011) Non-depressed people tend to have overly favorable views of themselves, whereas depressed people have more realistic self-concepts However, too much use of positive illusions is associated with poorer health outcomes Baumeister (1989)- optimal margin of illusion The Nature Of Constructive Coping Some methods of coping are more beneficial but keep in mind... Even the healthiest coping strategies can turn out ineffective in some cases There is no specific strategy for coping that can guarantee a successful outcome There are no coping strategies that helpful for all people or across all situations The benefit of a coping strategy depends on the person and the situation Constructive coping: refers to efforts to deal with stressful events that are judged to be relatively healthful/beneficial Constructive coping involves: Confronting problems directly Effort (an active process that involves planning) Realistic appraisals of your stress and coping resources Emotional and behavioral self-control Constructive coping can be broken down into 3 main categories: Appraisal-Focused Constructive Coping Albert Ellis (1971+)- People could short-circuit their emotional reactions to stress by altering their appraisals of stressful events You feel the way you think! Problematic emotional reactions are caused by negative self-talk, “catastrophic thinking.” Rational emotive behavior therapy: Focuses on altering clients’ patterns of irrational thinking to reduce maladaptive emotions and behaviors, changing irrational thoughts to rational ones Elliss’s A-B-C Model: Humor: provoking laughter, providing amusement → Acts as a moderator in the association between stress and mental health Martin & Lefcourt (1983)- participants with a good sense of humor were less negatively impacted by stress than low-humour participants. Associated with higher self-efficacy and optimism and lower stress, depression, and anxiety...But only specific types of humor are effective at reducing stress Chen & Martin (2007)- humor that is affiliative or self-enhancing is related to better mental health In contrast, humor that is self-defeating or aggressive is related to poorer mental health How does humor reduce the effects of stress and promote wellness? -​ Makes appraisals more positive -​ Increases positive emotions -​ Facilitates positive social interactions Positive reinterpretation Recognizing that ‘things could be worse’ -Imagine yourself in a similar situation with a worse outcome -Think of others who are worse off than you -Search for the good in a bad experience Problem-Focused Constructive Coping Problem-focused coping: an active strategy that involves efforts to remedy or conquer the stressful situation itself, changing the stressful situation in a way that makes it more manageable 3 main types: -​ Systematic problem solving -​ Seeking help -​ Improving time management Systematic problem solving Clarify the problem- specific concrete definition Generate alternate courses of action- brainstorming Evaluate your alternatives and select a course of action realistic?... costs or risks?...compare the courses of action and choose Take action while maintaining flexibility We have already learned how important social support is for buffering the negative impacts of stress Related to social support... there is also value in seeking help from others to directly address stressful situations But sometimes, social support networks can be intrusive or give poor advice Improving time management Many stressors in the modern world result from a lack of time, so time management skills can be an important part of stress reduction Procrastination, the tendency to delay tackling tasks until the last minute and has been associated with maladaptive coping and increased stress Emotion-Focused Constructive Coping Emotional Intelligence: the ability to perceive, express, and regulate emotions The most well-developed scale of EI, the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test, can predict the quality of people’s social interactions and mental and physical health. Although there is a lack of research in this area, the idea is that with higher emotional intelligence, one can better cope with stressors. Pashang & Singh (2008)- those with high emotional intelligence were more likely to use problem-solving strategies to deal with anxiety, whereas those with →low EI used distraction and denial more →Low EI has been associated with increased worry, avoidance, and alcohol abuse At work, low EI is associated with increased burnout Using meditation and relaxation Meditation: a family of mental exercises which involves focusing or clearing your mind using a combination of mental and physical techniques -Common types of meditation include those associated with yoga, Zen, mindfulness, and transcendental meditation Meditation has been associated with reductions in stress and anxiety, lower levels of stress hormones, and increases in positive emotions There are also beneficial physiological effects of going into a meditative state (e.g., improvements in resting heart rate and blood pressure) Benson (1975)- what makes meditation beneficial is the relaxation, it induces “relaxation response.” 4 critical factors for this response to occur: Quiet environment Mental device (or focal point) Passive attitude A comfortable position Spirituality Spiritual practices are related to every part of the coping process (reappraisal, forgiveness, meditation, and social support) spirituality is associated with better mental and physical health Associated with lowered suicide rates, reduced substance abuse, lowered anxiety, and greater optimism Associated with enhanced immune functioning, lower blood pressure, reduced incidence of heart disease, better health behaviors However religious involvement that focuses on punishment or guilt tends to be harmful to mental health Sleep plays a very important role in mental and physical health Research has found that getting the appropriate amount and quality of sleep is important for emotion regulation, impulsivity, and more generally, mental health Obtaining adequate amount and quality of sleep can also help lessen the physiological effects of stress Sleep is heavily involved in immune system function- cytokines are produced and released during sleep, fight off infection Sleep loss has been associated with increased inflammation, impaired immune system response, and increased susceptibility to infection, disease PERSONALITY, STRESS, AND ILLNESS (CHAPTER 5: PSYCHOLOGY AND PHYSICAL HEALTH) Personality, emotions, and heart disease A person’s characteristic demeanour (or personality) can influence their physical health Heart disease is the leading cause of death in the US every year Coronary heart disease- plaque builds up in coronary arteries- results in a reduction in blood flow to the heart; leading cause of heart attack Friedman & Rosenman (1974) studied possible causes of coronary heart disease Originally interested in the usual factors thought to cause high risk of heart attack (e.g., smoking, obesity, physical inactivity) They found these factors important but realized part of the puzzle was missing... Many people who smoked, did little exercise, and were obese still did not get CHD, while others who led much healthier lifestyles did What was their explanation? STRESS! Friedman & Rosenman (1974) divided people into two basic personality types (Type A, Type B) Type A personality has three components: A strong competitive orientation, Impatience and time urgency, Anger and cynical hostility Type B personality: Relatively relaxed, patient, easy going, amicable behaviour CHD PERSONALITY, STRESS, AND ILLNESS Decades of research suggests a moderate correlation between coronary risk and Type A personality Friedman & Rosenman believe this relationship is due to those with Type A having more self-imposed stress and more intense reactions to stress Anger and hostility are the factors of Type A personality most associated with CHD; may be the crucial elements that account for the connection between Type A personality and Depression and heart disease Many studies have found elevated rates of depression among patients suffering from heart disease Most theorists have explained this correlation by asserting that being diagnosed with heart disease makes people depressed. Studies now suggest causal relations may also flow in the opposite direction — emotional dysfunction of depression may contribute to acquiring heart disease. Having depression doubles one’s chance of getting heart disease Stress and Cancer Cancer: malignant cell growth which may occur in many organ systems in the body A collection of more than 200 related diseases that vary in their characteristics and responses to treatment. There is very little evidence for an association between mental health or personality factors and the development of cancer No link between personality traits and Cancer Some associations between negative emotionality, tendency to repress emotions and Cancer But...stress and personality factors can influence the course of the disease Psychological interventions aimed at helping cancer patients cope can enhance their quality of life Stress has been associated with the following: Headaches Hypertension Inflammatory Bowel Disease Ulcers Stroke Diabetes Skin disorders The common cold- research has found evidence that stress impacts weather someone contracts a cold virus Study- Measured stress levels of participants, inoculated them with cold viruses, quarantined them, who got sick? Also people who are more sociable and agreeable are less susceptible to getting sick when exposed to the cold virus! Stress and immune system functioning The immune response is the body’s defensive reaction to invasion by bacteria, viral agents, or other foreign substances, works to protect the body from disease Janice Kiecolt-Glaser and colleagues Research on stress and suppressed immune function in humans Study- Medical students had reduced immune system activity the week of finals compared to the month before, stress questionnaire positively correlated with immune system suppression HABITS, LIFESTYLES, AND HEALTH Leading behavioural causes of death include: Smoking; poor diet/physical inactivity Alcohol consumption Unsafe driving Firearms Risky sexual behaviour Illicit drug use/toxic agents Why do people engage in unhealthy behaviours? Many bad health behaviors creep up on people slowly Many bad health behaviors are quite enjoyable at the time It’s easy to ignore the risks as they generally occur after many years of engaging in poor habits People tend to underestimate the risks associated with their own poor-health behaviours Unrealistic optimism- one is aware that certain health behaviours are dangerous, but they erroneously view those dangers as risks for others rather than themselves The health effects of smoking Greater risk of: Cardiovascular diseases, various cancers, pulmonary Diseases Including the 3 leading causes of death in society today: heart attack, cancer, stroke Lung cancer and heart disease kill the largest number of smokers Smokers are twice as likely to die of heart disease than non-smokers 10 year shorter life expectancy Diseases associated with smoking Drinking: Alcohol encompasses a variety of beverages containing ethyl alcohol, such as beers, wines, and distilled spirits Concentration of alcohol varies within these drinks from 4% in most beers up to 40%-80% or more in proof-liquor In Canada in 2021, ~16% of people aged 12+ engaged in heavy drinking (M= 5, F=4 or more drinks on one occasion at least once/ month for past year) Study in US, 119 colleges, 81% of undergraduates drank, 40% reported heavy drinking; 49% of men, 40% of women report binge drinking to get drunk at least once/month The effects of alcohol consumption are influenced by many factors (e.g., experience with alcohol, size, gender, presence of food in stomach, amount of alcohol concentration) The central effect of alcohol is a ‘who cares’ euphoria that temporarily boosts self-esteem, decreases stress and worries, loosens inhibitions. Health effects of drinking Short-term effects: hangovers, alcohol poisoning, intellectual deficits, poor judgement, reduced coordination, slowed reaction time Impaired driving: Depending on one’s body weight, it might take only a couple drinks for driving to be impaired In Canada in 2020, ~25% of road deaths were alcohol- related Overeating and obesity Commonly assessed by using body-mass index (BMI)-weight divided by height squared; weight index that controls for variations in height BMI 25.0-29.9 = overweight; BMI 30.0+ = obese In US (2022) ~33% of people 18+ were obese In Canada (2022) ~30% of people 18+ were obese Medical issues and drugs Some medical issues can result in weight gain (e.g., hypothyroid) Some drugs can result in weight gain (e.g., certain anti-depressants) Losing weight The best method to lose weight is to decrease calorie consumption and step up exercise output (moderately opposed to extreme) Exercise is the single best predictor of long-term weight loss 32 Nutrition: a collection of processes (mainly food consumption) through which an organism utilizes the materials (nutrients) required for survival and growth Heavy consumption of certain foods is linked to various health issues, forexample: High fat diet increases risk for heart disease and some forms of cancer High-cholesterol foods increase risk for heart disease Low fibre diet increases risk for heart disease High salt diets can contribute to hypertension 33 Nutritional guidelines 1. Eat a balanced variety of foods 2. Avoid excessive consumption of saturated fats, refined grains, sugar, salt 3. Increase consumption of polyunsaturated fats, whole-grains, natural sugars, fibre The components of food essential to your well being (6 essential nutrients): Proteins, fats, carbohydrates- supply the body with energy Vitamins, minerals- help release that energy Fibre- facilitates digestion 34 Criticisms of the food pyramid Failure to distinguish among different types of fat, different forms of carbohydrates, and different sources of protein Fat: monosaturated and polyunsaturated fats are considered healthier (i.e., heart healthy fats) than saturated fats Carbohydrates: whole grains are considered healthier than refined grains (e.g., white bread and pasta- stripped of vitamin B, iron, dietary fibre)