Conflict In Middle East PDF

**[CONFLICT IN MIDDLE EAST]** **[Background]** **ANGLO-RUSSIAN AGREEMENT -- 1915\ **In March 1915, Britain signed a secret agreement with Russia, whose designs on the Ottoman Empire's territory had led the Turks to join forces with Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1914. By its terms, Russia would an...

**[CONFLICT IN MIDDLE EAST]** **[Background]** **ANGLO-RUSSIAN AGREEMENT -- 1915\ **In March 1915, Britain signed a secret agreement with Russia, whose designs on the Ottoman Empire's territory had led the Turks to join forces with Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1914. By its terms, Russia would annex the Ottoman capital of Constantinople and retain control of the Dardanelles (the crucially important strait connecting the Black Sea with the Mediterranean) and the Gallipoli peninsula, the target of a major Allied military invasion begun in April 1915. In return, Russia would agree to British claims on other areas of the former Ottoman Empire and central Persia, including the oil-rich region of Mesopotamia. **[Post War conflict in Palestine after World War I, till the formation of the state of Israel. ]** - The origin of the problem went back almost 2000 years to the year AD 71, when most of the Jews were driven out of Palestine, which was then their homeland, by the Romans. - Small communities of Jews stayed behind in Palestine, and over the following 1700 years there was a gradual trickle of Jews returning from exile. - Until the end of the nineteenth century, however, there were never enough Jews to make the Arabs, who now looked on Palestine as their homeland, feel threatened. - In 1897 some Jews living in Europe founded the World Zionist Organization at Basle in Switzerland. Zionists were people who believed that Jews ought to be able to go back to Palestine and have what they called \'a national homeland\'; in other words, a Jewish state. - Jews had recently suffered persecution in Russia, France and Germany, and a Jewish state would provide a safe refuge for Jews from all over the world. - The problem was that Palestine was inhabited by Arabs who were alarmed at the prospect of losing their land to the Jews. - Britain became involved in 1917, when the foreign minister, Arthur Balfour, announced that Britain supported the idea of a Jewish national home in Palestine. - After 1919, when Palestine became a British mandate, large numbers of Jews began to arrive in Palestine, and the Arabs protested bitterly to the British that they wanted an independent Palestine for the Arabs, and an end to the immigration of Jews. - The British government stated (1922) that there was no intention of the Jews occupying the whole of Palestine and that there would be no interference with the rights of the Palestinian Arabs. Balfour himself said in his declaration: \'nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of the existing non­ Jewish communities in Palestine\'. - The British hoped to persuade Jews and Arabs to live together peacefully in the same state; they failed to understand the deep reli­gious gulf between the two; and they failed to keep Balfour\'s promise. - Nazi persecution of Jews in Germany after 1933 caused a flood of refugees, and by 1940 about half the population of Palestine was Jewish. From 1936 onwards there were violent protests by Arabs and an uprising, which the British suppressed with some brutality, killing over 3000 Arabs. - In 1937 the British Peel Commission proposed dividing Palestine into two separate states, one Arab and one Jewish, but the Arabs rejected the idea. The British tried again in 1939, offering an independent Arab state within ten years, and Jewish immigration limited to 10,000 a year; this time the Jews rejected the proposal.\ *(A royal commission of inquiry presided over by Lord Robert Peel, which was sent to investigate the volatile situation, reported in July 1937 that the revolt was caused by Arab desire for independence and fear of the Jewish national home. The Peel Commission declared the mandate unworkable and Britain's obligations to Arabs and Jews mutually irreconcilable. In the face of what it described as "right against right," the commission recommended that the region be partitioned.)* - The Second World War made the situation much worse: there were hundreds of thousands of Jewish refugees from Hitler\'s Europe desperately looking for some­ where to go. - In 1945 the USA pressed Britain to allow 100,000 Jews into Palestine; this demand was echoed by David Ben Gurion, one of the Jewish leaders, but the British, not wanting to offend the Arabs, refused. - The Jews, after all that their race had suffered at the hands of the Nazis, were deter­ mined to fight for their \'national home\'. They began a terrorist campaign against both Arabs and British; one of the most spectacular incidents was the blowing up of the King David Hotel in Jerusalem, which the British were using as their head­ quarters; 91 people were killed and many more injured. The British responded by arresting Jewish leaders and by turning back ships such as the Exodus, crammed with Jews intending to enter Palestine. - The British, weakened by the strain of the Second World War, felt unable to cope. Ernest Bevin, the Labour foreign secretary, asked the United Nations to deal with the problem. - In November 1947, the UN voted to divide Palestine, setting aside roughly half of it to form an independent Jewish state. Early in 1948 the British decided to come out altogether and let the UN carry out its own plan. Although fighting was already going on between Jews and Arabs (who bitterly resented the loss of half of Palestine), the British withdrew all their troops. \[TWO STATE SOLUTION\] - In May 1948 Ben Gurion declared the independence of the new state of Israel. It was immediately attacked by Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Iraq and Lebanon. *[Who was to be blamed for the tragedy?]* The chaos in Palestine during the British withdrawal was widely criticized. Globally, Britain was blamed for mismanagement, with Conservatives and media criticizing Labour leader Bevin for not ensuring a smooth partition. Arabs accused Britain of being pro-Jewish by allowing excessive Jewish immigration, while Jews accused Britain of being pro-Arab for limiting Jewish immigration. Bevin blamed the USA, citing President Truman's pressure to admit 100,000 Jews to Palestine in 1946, which angered Arabs. Truman refused to provide U.S. troops or accept more Jewish immigrants and opposed the British Morrison Plan for joint governance. The U.S. also pushed for the controversial UN partition plan despite Arab opposition, leading to further violence. Some historians defend Britain, arguing it attempted fairness but faced an impossible task of appeasing both sides. The withdrawal, though criticized, shifted responsibility to the U.S. and UN, reducing Britain's financial burden after spending over £100 million on peacekeeping since 1945. **Aims of Arab nationalism** - The primary goal of Arab nationalism is to remove Western influence from the Arab world and end the dependence of Arab governments on Western powers - This is an ideology, a belief that an Arab "nation" existed much before the rise of nationalism in the 19th & 20th centuries. - This Arab nation had Arabic as the language of communication and then Islam as a religion and culture. - The Arab nationalism movement has always had great emotional appeal and its aim was the renaissance of the Arab peoples and the restoration of their sovereignty, unity and power. - This movement in the late 18th and early 19th centuries came to be called Pan-Arabism. - During WWI, the Arab Revolt of 1916 aimed to create a single unified and independent Arab state stretching from Aleppo in Syria to Aden in Yemen, which the British, according to the - Hussein-McMahon letters had promised to recognize Since WW2 it has been further encouraged by the drive against colonialism throughout the world to drive out imperialistic influence. - Arab nationalism has always been identified with loyalty to the Arab "nation" as a whole, rather than with allegiance to one or the other of the existing, and often artificially created, Arab states. **Zionism** - The aim of Zionism is to establish a Jewish state in Palestine. Zionists also worked to modernize Hebrew and adapt it for everyday use. - Zionism is a religious and political effort that brought thousands of Jews from around the world back to their ancient homeland in the Middle East and re-established Israel as the central location for Jewish identity. - Modern Zionism formally took root in the late 19th century when Jews throughout the world faced growing anti-Semitism. (Dreyfus Affair --1894). - The rise of Zionism led to massive Jewish immigration into Israel. About 35,000 Jews relocated to the area between 1882 and 1903. - Another 40,000 made their way to the homeland between 1904 and 1914. All Zionists agree that Israel should exist. They disagree on what it should look like. - The Zionist right believes in land-for-peace and prefers a secular govt over a religious one. - The Zionist right does not believe in land-for-peace and is more comfortable with mixing politics and religion. **[Impact of World War I: the conflicting promises made by the British to the Arabs and the Jews: ]** **Husain-McMahon correspondence** - This was an exchange of letters (ten letters in English and Arabic), between Hussein Ali, Sherif of Mecca, and Sir Henry McMahon, British High Commissioner in Egypt, between 1915-1916, that traded British support of an independent Arab state in exchange for launching an Arab Revolt (1916) against the Ottoman Empire during WWI. - The subject of this correspondence was the political future of the Arab countries in the Middle East, as well as Britain's desire to start an uprising against the Ottoman rule. - McMahon's statements were interpreted by the Arabs as the assurances of Arab independence, which was never accomplished due to the subsequent division of the region into territories controlled by the United Kingdom and France (which had been established in the secret Sykes-Picot agreement of May 1916). A particular controversy arose around Palestine, which official British authorities --and even McMahon -- described as exempted from the agreement. - It was later contradicted by the incompatible terms of the [Sykes-Picot Agreement](https://www.britannica.com/event/Sykes-Picot-Agreement), secretly concluded between Britain and France in May 1916, and Britain's [Balfour Declaration](https://www.britannica.com/event/Balfour-Declaration) of 1917. - In July 1915 Hussein took the opportunity to send a letter to McMahon detailing the conditions under which he would consider a partnership with the British. - Hussein, who claimed to represent all Arabs, effectively sought independence for the entirety of the Arabic-speaking lands to the east of Egypt. - McMahon, however, insisted that certain areas falling within the French sphere of influence, such as the districts of Mersina and Alexandretta and land lying west of [Damascus](https://www.britannica.com/place/Damascus) ([Homs](https://www.britannica.com/place/Homs), [Hama](https://www.britannica.com/place/Hamah), and [Aleppo](https://www.britannica.com/place/Aleppo)---i.e., modern [Lebanon](https://www.britannica.com/place/Lebanon)), would not be included and emphasized that British interests in [Baghdad](https://www.britannica.com/place/Baghdad) and [Basra](https://www.britannica.com/place/Basra) would require special consideration. - Hussein disagreed with the exception of the French-claimed areas and [stipulated](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/stipulated) that certain rules had to govern British activity in Baghdad and Basra, terms to which McMahon did not give his assent. - In the end, the matters were set aside for discussion at a later date. Ultimately, the highly [ambiguous](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ambiguous) correspondence was in no way a formal treaty, and disagreements on several points persisted unresolved. **Sykes-Picot Agreement** - **Sykes-Picot Agreement**, (May 1916), secret [convention](https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/convention) made during [World War I](https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-I) between [Great Britain](https://www.britannica.com/place/Great-Britain-island-Europe) and [France](https://www.britannica.com/place/France), with the assent of imperial [Russia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia), for the dismemberment of the [Ottoman Empire](https://www.britannica.com/place/Ottoman-Empire). - A secret agreement by which most of the Arab lands under the rule of the Ottoman Empire were to be divided into British and French spheres of influence with the conclusion of World War I. - In its designated sphere each country would establish direct or indirect administration or control as they desired and as they thought fit to arrange with the Arab State or Confederation of Arab States. - Under Sykes-Picot, the Syrian coast and much of modern-day Lebanon went to France; Britain would take direct control over central and southern Mesopotamia, around the Baghdad and Basra provinces. - Palestine would have an international administration, as other Christian powers, namely Russia, held an interest in this region. - The rest of the territory in question; a huge area including modern-day Syria, Mosul in northern Iraq, and Jordan would have local Arab chiefs under French supervision in the north and Britishin the south. - Also, Britain and France would retain free passage and trade in the other's zone of influence. **Balfour Declaration** It is a letter from the British Foreign Secretary Arthur James Balfour to Baron Rothschild, a wealthy and prominent leader in the British Jewish community. It expressed the British government's support for the establishment of a Jewish home in Palestine. The text of the letter was included in the Mandate for Palestine---a document issued by the League of Nations in 1923 that gave Great Britain the responsibility of establishing a Jewish national homeland in British-controlled Palestine. The Balfour Declaration was a public statement issued by the British government in 1917 that announced its support for the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine: Date: Published on November 2, 1917 Author: Written by Arthur Balfour Content: The declaration stated that the British government would support the establishment of a \"national home for the Jewish people\" in Palestine. It also included a caveat that the British government would not do anything that would prejudice the rights of non-Jewish communities in Palestine. The Balfour Declaration expressed evident sympathy for the Zionist idea -- embodied in the famous commitment to "view with favour the establishment of a national home for the Jewish people" in the Holy Land. It ended with two important qualifications: first, that nothing should be done to prejudice the "civil and religious rights" of Palestine's "existing non-Jewish communities." And second, that the declaration should not affect the rights and political status of Jews living in other countries. The Balfour Declaration was issued during World War I, when the Zionist movement was gaining ground. The declaration was a pivotal moment in history, and some say it laid the groundwork for the systematic displacement of Palestinians and the eventual establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine. **These promises were mutually incompatible and contradictory:** - The Balfour Declaration promised a Jewish homeland in Palestine, while the Hussein-McMahon Correspondence promised support for an independent Arab state. - The Sykes-Picot Agreement contradicted the Hussein-McMahon Correspondence by dividing up the Middle East between Britain and France. **[First Arab- Israeli Conflict (1948-1949) ]** ***Cause-*** formation of Israel (read previously written note) - Arab nationalism, Zionism, British foreign policy. - UN Partition plan (Nov 1947) accepted by Israel and rejected by all Arab countries, including Palestine. - 15 May (1948) the British mandate ended and on the same day troops from Egypt, Syria, Jordan and Iraq entered Palestine in support of the local Palestinian Arabs. - Fighting continued up to January 1949 when an armistice agreement was forged in July of that year. ***Consequence-*** Most people expected the Arabs to win easily, but against seemingly overwhelming odds, the Israelis defeated them and even captured more of Palestine than the UN partition had given them. They ended up with about three-quarters of Palestine plus the Egyptian port of Eilat on the Red Sea. The most tragic outcome of the war was that the Palestinian Arabs became the innocent victims: they had suddenly lost three-quarters of their homeland, and the majority were now without a state of their own. Some were in the new Jewish state of Israel; others found themselves living in the area- known as the West Bank- occupied by Jordan. After some Jews had slaughtered the entire population of an Arab village in Israel, nearly a million Arabs fled into Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan and Syria, where they had to live in miserable refugee camps. The city of Jerusalem was divided between Israel and Jordan. More than 20% of Palestinian Arabs left Palestine altogether and resettled in Lebanon, Jordan, Syria, Egypt and Iraq. The refugee problem caused further dispute between Arabs and Jews. The Jewish argument was that Palestinians should be integrated into the Arab states, whereas the Arabs argued that refugees should be able to return to their rightful homes The USA, Britain and France guaranteed Israel\'s frontiers, but the Arab states did not regard the ceasefire as permanent. They would not recognize the legality of Israel, and they regarded this war as only the first round in the struggle to destroy Israel and liberate Palestine. The UN partition promised 56 percent of British Palestine for the Jewish state; by the end of the war, Israel possessed 77 percent --- everything except the West Bank and the eastern quarter of Jerusalem (controlled by Jordan), as well as the Gaza Strip (controlled by Egypt). It left Israelis with a state, but not Palestinians. It demonstrated the lack of united aims and cooperation between the so-called Arab League. *[Why did Israel win and Palestine lose?]* The Israelis won because they fought desperately, and many of their troops had gained military experience fighting in the British army during the Second World War (some 30 000 Jewish men volunteered to fight for the British). The Arab states were divided among themselves and poorly equipped. The Palestinians themselves were demoralized, and their military organization had been destroyed by the British during the uprisings of 1936-9. **[The Suez Crisis (1956) ]** ***Cause-*** Colonel Nasser, the new ruler of Egypt, was aggressively in favour of Arab unity and independence, including the liberation of Palestine from the Jews; almost everything he did irritated the British, Americans or French: [Guerrilla warfare]: He organized guerrilla fighters known *asfedayeen* (\'self-sacrificers\') to carry out sabotage and murder inside Israel, and Egyptian ships blockaded the Gulf of Aqaba leading to the port of Eilat, which the Israelis had taken from Egypt in 1949. [Nationalisation of Suez Canal]: In 1936 Britain had signed an agreement with Egypt which allowed the British to keep troops at Suez. This treaty was due to expire in 1956, and Britain wanted it renewed. Nasser refused and insisted that all British troops should withdraw immediately the treaty ended. He sent help to the Algerian Arabs in their struggle against France, prodded the other Arab states into opposing the British-sponsored Baghdad Pact, and forced King Hussein of Jordan to dismiss his British army chief of staff. Crisis point was reached when Nasser immediately retaliated by nationalizing the Suez Canal, intending to use the income from it to finance the dam. Shareholders in the canal, the majority of who were British and French, were promised compensation. [Arms deal:] He signed an arms deal with Czechoslovakia (September 1955) for Russian fighters, bombers and tanks, and Russian military experts went to train the Egyptian army. The Americans were outraged at this, since it meant that the West no longer controlled arms supplies to Egypt. Egypt now became part of the Cold War (any country which was not part of the Western alliance and which bought arms from Eastern Europe was, in American eyes, just as bad as a communist country). It was seen as a sinister plot by the Russians to \'move into\' the Middle East. The Americans therefore cancelled a promised grant of \$46 million towards the building of a dam at Aswan (July 1956); their intention was to force Nasser to abandon his new links with the communists. **[International Powers and the Suez Crisis]** Anthony Eden, the British Conservative prime minister, took the lead at this point. He believed that Nasser was on the way to forming a united Arabia under Egyptian control and communist influence, which could cut off Europe\'s oil supplies at will. He viewed Nasser as another Hitler or Mussolini, and according to historian Hugh Thomas, \'saw Egypt through a forest of Flanders poppies and gleaming jackboots\'. He was not alone in this: Churchill remarked: \'We can\'t have this malicious swine sitting across our communications\', and the new Labour leader, Hugh Gaitskell, agreed that Nasser must not be appeased in the way that Hitler and Mussolini had been appeased in the 1930s. Everybody in Britain ignored the fact that Nasser had offered compensation to the shareholders and had promised that the ships of all nations (except Israel) would be able to use the canal. **Secret talks took place between the British, French and Israelis and a plan was hatched: Israel would invade Egypt across the Sinai peninsula, whereupon British and French troops would occupy the canal zone on the pretext that they were protecting it from damage in the fighting. Anglo-French control of the canal would be restored, and the defeat, it was hoped, would topple Nasser from power.** *[Why did Eden not take a peaceful route to resolve the crisis?]* Recent research has shown that the war could easily have been avoided and that Eden was more in favour of getting rid of Nasser by peaceful means. In fact there was a secret Anglo-American plan (Omega) to overthrow Nasser using political and economic pressures. In mid-October 1956, Eden was still willing to continue talks with Egypt. He had called off the military operation and there seemed a good chance of compromise being reached over control of the Suez Canal. However, Eden was under pressure from several directions to use force. MI6 (the British Intelligence Service) and some members of the British government, including Harold Macmillan (Chancellor of the Exchequer), urged military action. Macmillan assured Eden that the USA would not oppose a British use of force. In the end, it was probably pressure from the French government which caused Eden to opt for a joint military operation with France and Israel. ***Course-*** - The war began with the planned Israeli invasion of Egypt (29 October). This was a brilliant success, and within a week the Israelis had captured the entire Sinai peninsula. - Meanwhile the British and French bombed Egyptian airfields and landed troops at Port Said at the northern end of the canal. The attacks caused an outcry from the rest of the world, and the Americans, who were afraid of upsetting all the Arabs and forcing them into closer ties with the USSR, refused to support Britain, although they had earlier hinted that support would be forthcoming. - At the United Nations, Americans and Russians for once agreed: they demanded an immediate ceasefire, and prepared to send a UN force. With the pressure of world opinion against them, Britain, France and Israel agreed to withdraw, while UN troops moved in to police the frontier between Egypt and Israel. ***Consequence-*** - It was a complete humiliation for Britain and France, who achieved none of their aims, and it was a triumph for President Nasser. - The war failed to overthrow Nasser, and his prestige as the leader of Arab nation­ alism against interfering Europeans was greatly increased; for the ordinary Arab people, he was a hero. - The Egyptians blocked the canal, the Arabs reduced oil supplies to Western Europe, where petrol rationing was introduced for a time, and Russian aid replaced that from the USA. - The British action soon lost them an ally in Iraq, where premier Nuri-es-Said came under increasing attack from other Arabs for his pro-British attitude; he was murdered in 1958. - Britain was now weak and unable to follow a foreign policy independently of the USA. - The Algerians were encouraged in their struggle for independence from France which they achieved in 1962. - The war was not without success for Israel: although she had been compelled to hand back all territory captured from Egypt, she had inflicted heavy losses on the Egyptians in men and equipment, which would take years to make good. - For the time being the *fedayeen* raids ceased and Israel had a breathing space in which to consolidate. - Following Britain\'s humiliation, the Israelis now looked towards the USA as their chief supporter. - Israel, while it did not gain the right to utilize the canal, was once again granted rights to ship goods along the Straits of Tiran. **[The Six Day War (1967)]** ***Cause-*** The Arab states had not signed a peace treaty at the end of the 1948-9 war and were still refusing to give Israel official recognition. In 1967 they joined together again in a determined attempt to destroy Israel. The lead was taken by Iraq, Syria and Egypt. - PLO attacks on the Israeli border. - Nasser's attempt to regain lost stature (with the promise of Soviet help -- a modern air force) through a show of military strength. - Israel had warm relations with the United States, but it was not yet the biggest recipient of American military aid. - Egypt evicts UN Emergency Force in Sinai. - Egypt closes the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping, constituting a casus belli for Israel. - Israel- Syria conflict over sharing waters of River Jordan. - Claims of Israeli troop buildup. [Steadiness in the Arab States : ] **Iraq**- a new government came to power in 1963 which was influenced by the ideas of the Ba\'ath Party in neighbouring Syria. Supporters of the Ba\'ath (meaning \'resurrection\') believed in Arab independence and unity and were left-wing in outlook, wanting social reform and better treatment for ordinary people. They were prepared to co-operate with Egypt, and in June 1967 their president, Aref, announced: \'Our goal is clear - to wipe Israel off the map.\' **Syria**- political upheavals brought the Ba\'ath Party to power in 1966. It supported El Fatah, the Palestinian Liberation Movement, a more effective guerrilla force than the fedayeen. Founded in 1957, Fatah eventually became the core section of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), with Yasser Arafat as one of its leaders. The Syrians also began to bombard Jewish settlements from the Golan Heights, which overlooked the frontier. **Egypt**- Colonel Nasser was immensely popular because of his leadership of the Arab world and his attempts to improve conditions in Egypt with his socialist policies. These included limiting the size of farms to 100 acres and redistributing surplus land to peasants. Attempts were made to industrialize the country, and over a thousand new factories were built, almost all under government control. The Aswan Dam project was vitally important, providing electricity, and water for irrigating an extra million acres of land. After early delays at the time of the Suez War in 1956, work on the dam eventually got under way and the project was completed in 1971. ***Build up to the war-*** - With all going well at home and the prospect of effective help from Iraq and Syria, Nasser decided that the time was ripe for another attack on Israel. He began to move troops up to the frontier in Sinai and closed the Gulf of Aqaba. - The Russians encouraged Egypt and Syria and kept up a flow of anti-Israeli propaganda (because Israel was being supported by the USA). Their aim was to increase their influence in the Middle East at the expense of the Americans and Israelis. They hinted that they would send help if war came. - Syria, Jordan and Lebanon also massed troops along their frontiers with Israel, while contingents from Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Algeria joined them. Israel\'s situation seemed hopeless. - The Israelis decided that the best policy was to attack first rather than wait to be defeated. They launched a series of devastating air strikes, which destroyed most of the Egyptian air force on the ground (5 June). - Israeli troops moved with remarkable speed, capturing the Gaza Strip and the whole of Sinai from Egypt, the rest of Jerusalem and the West Bank from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria. The - Arabs had no choice but to accept a UN ceasefire order (10 June), and it was all over in less than a week. - *Reasons for the spectacular Israeli success were*: the slow and ponderous Arab troop build-up which gave the Israelis plenty of warning, Israeli superiority in the air, and inadequate Arab preparations and communications. ***Consequence-*** - For the Israelis it was a spectacular success: this time they had ignored a UN order to return the captured territory; this acted as a series of buffer zones between Israel and the Arab states and meant that it would be much easier to defend Israel. - However, it did bring a new problem - how to deal with about a million extra Arabs who now found themselves under Israeli rule. Many of these were living in the refugee camps set up in 1948 on the West Bank and in the Gaza Strip. - It was a humiliation for the Arab states, and especially for Nasser, who now realized that the Arabs needed outside help if they were ever to free Palestine. - The Russians had been a disappointment to Nasser and had sent no help. To try and improve their relations with Egypt and Syria, the Russians began to supply them with modern weapons. Sooner or later the Arabs would try again to destroy Israel and liberate Palestine. - Israel had more than tripled the size of the territory under its control. - Israeli morale and international prestige was greatly increased by the outcome of the war, but their over-confidence may have contributed to future military losses against Egypt in the Yom Kippur War of 1973. - It may have reinforced the idea that Zionism was indeed a 'messianic process'. (Gilead Sher -- Israeli peace negotiator) - Humiliation for Arab countries that fanned the flames of the conflict. **The origin and formation of the PLO** - The Palestinians desired to reclaim the lands occupied by Israel, which they felt belonged to them. - In 1964, Gamal Abdul Nasser, the Egyptian president, convened the first Arab summit. His aim was to lead an Arab response to the state of Israel. The Arab leaders voted to set up a body to organise the Palestinians in their diaspora. - In the same year the first Palestinian parliament was convened in Jerusalem. There the establishment of the Palestine Liberation Organisation was officially announced. - Made up of different factions, the PLO has been at the heart of the struggle to regain Palestine ever since. **[The Yom Kippur War (1973)]** ***Cause-*** [PFLP activities] - Pressure was brought to bear on the Arab states by the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) under its leader Yasser Arafat, for some further action. - When very little happened, a more extreme group within the PLO, called the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), embarked on a series of terrorist attacks to draw world attention to the grave injustice being done to the Arabs of Palestine. - They hijacked airliners and flew three of them to Amman, the capital of Jordan, where they were blown up (1970). This was embarrassing for King Hussein of Jordan, who now favoured a negotiated peace, and in September 1970 he expelled all PLO members based in Jordan. - However, terrorist attacks continued, reaching a horrifying climax when some members of the Israeli team were murdered at the 1972 Munich Olympics. [Sadat's Role] - Anwar Sadat, the president of Egypt since Nasser\'s death in 1970, was becoming increasingly convinced of the need for a negotiated peace settlement with Israel. He was worried that PLO terrorism would turn world opinion against the Palestinian cause. - He was prepared to work either with the USA or with the USSR, but he hoped to win American support for the Arabs, so that the Americans would persuade the Israelis to agree to a peace settlement. However, the Americans refused to get involved. - Egypt and Syria decided to launch a two-front coordinated attack to regain the territory they lost in 1967. Egypt confident with Soviet weapons and military training. Sadat sought a limited war to focus the minds of the world\'s superpowers, and to jump-start the stalled peace process. - Sadat, together with Syria, decided to attack Israel again, hoping that this would force the Americans to act as mediators. The Egyptians were feeling more confident because they now had modern Russian weapons and their army had been trained by Russian experts ***Course-*** Egypt and Syria launched a two-front offensive on Israel, from the north and the south. \"Operation Badr\" - Egyptian military forces managed to cross the Suez Canal and capture the Bar Lev Line - a fortified sand wall on the east bank of the canal - this initial military success, which came to be known to Egyptians as \"the crossing,\" served as a sign of victory after 25 years of defeat. On the northern front line, Syrian infantry divisions crossed the 1967 ceasefire line known as the Purple Line. The Israeli losses were heavy and the course of the war seemed to lie squarely within Arab hands. But the Israeli forces rallied within 24 hours and turned the Syrian advance into a retreat. Iraqi, Saudi and Jordanian armies joined the fight on the Syrian front to face the counterattack. Still, the Israelis manage to achieve significant gains - advancing to within 35km of Damascus, occupying new territories Both the USSR and the Americans began airlifting arms, including tanks and artillery, to their allies as their stockpiles began to ran out - the politics of the Cold War between the Soviets - who supplied the Arab countries with weapons - and the US - which backed Israel - played out and inflamed the war, bringing the two blocs to the brink of military conflict for the first time since the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis. Israeli forces, under the command of Ariel Sharon, managed to penetrate Egyptian and Syrian defence lines and came within a shocking distance from Cairo, the Egyptian capital city. The counterattack majorly turned the tide of the war in favour of the Israelis, and the fighting came to a stalemate. Now the Arabs decided to use a different tactic - oil. The Arab oil-producing countries, under the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), decided to reduce their oil production by five percent. In this way the Arab oil-producing states tried to bring pressure to bear on the USA and on western European states which were friendly to Israel, by reducing oil supplies. This caused serious oil shortages, especially in Europe. At the same time producers, well aware that oil supplies were not unlimited, looked on their action as a way of preserving resources. With this in mind, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) began to raise oil prices substantially. This contributed to inflation and caused an energy crisis in the world\'s industrial nations. The Arab countries enforced an embargo on the US, suspending oil supply. They pledged to \"maintain the same rate of reduction each month thereafter until the Israeli forces are fully withdrawn from all Arab territories occupied during the June 1967 War, and the legitimate rights of the Palestinian people are restored\". The reduction in oil production and supply led to major price hikes around the world, causing the US to reassess its support for the war. By the last week of October, the two sides were ready and willing to accept a ceasefire deal. On October 22, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 338, which called for a ceasefire. Six days later, Israeli and Egyptian military leaders met to negotiate a ceasefire. It was the first meeting between military representatives of the two countries in 25 years. But the negotiations quickly became strained as skirmishes continued in the confusion of the battlefield. The US then began intensive diplomatic efforts to secure disengagement agreements between Israel, Syria and Egypt. Henry Kissinger, the US secretary of state, flew from country to country in an effort to broker a peace deal, in what came to be known as \'Shuttle Diplomacy'. ***Consequence-*** - The war began on 6 October 1973. - Egyptian and Syrian forces attacked early on the feast of Yorn Kippur, a Jewish religious festival, hoping to catch the Israelis off guard. - After some early Arab successes, the Israelis, using mainly American weapons, were able to turn the tables. They succeeded in hanging on to all the territory they had captured in 1967 and even crossed the Suez Canal into Egypt. - In one sense Sadat\'s plan had been successful - both the USA and the USSR decided it was time to intervene to try to bring about a peace settlement. Acting with UN co-operation, they organized a ceasefire, which both sides accepted. - The end of the war brought a glimmer of hope for some sort of permanent peace. Egyptian and Israeli leaders came together (though not in the same room) in Geneva. - The Israelis agreed to move their troops back from the Suez Canal (which had been closed since the 1967 war), which enabled the Egyptians to clear and open the canal in 1975 (but not to Israeli ships). - The war clearly enhanced Israel's military deterrence capability, not diminished it. - However, the war also briefly made Israel willing to negotiate withdrawal from the conquered lands. - It also allowed Egypt to achieve its longer pre-war aims of recovering the Sinai in exchange for a peace agreement with Israel. - Substantially damaged US-USSR relations. Left détente in tatters. - Kissinger managed to broker separate disengagement agreements between Israel--Egypt and Israel--Syria. - Egypt and Syria regained a portion of their territory and UN buffer zones were established between them and Israel. - Both the Arabs and Israel declared victory in the war. The Arab countries managed to salvage their defeats after repeated losses in the 1948, 1956 and 1967 wars with Israel. - 1977, Sadat visited Jerusalem, giving a speech of peace to the Israeli parliament, the Knesset. - US President Jimmy Carter invited both Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin to Camp David, a country retreat for the US president near Washington, DC - to draw up a framework for Israeli-Palestinian peace **[Sadat and the Camp David Accord (1979)]** A series of agreements signed by Egyptian President Anwar Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin following nearly two weeks of secret negotiations at Camp David. It was the result of months of diplomatic efforts by US President Jimmy Carter. The accords stabilized the fractious relations between Israel and Egypt, for a while at least. **Aims** - Establish a framework for peace in the Middle East by formalizing Arab recognition of Israel's right to exist. - Develop a procedure for the withdrawal of Israeli forces and citizens from the so-called "Occupied Territories" of the West Bank. - Enable the establishment of a Palestinian state - Take steps to safeguard Israel's security. **TWO AGREEMENTS** 1. "A Framework for Peace in the Middle East"- For Palestine -- recognition of rights to autonomy and self -- government. For Israel -- withdrawal from West Bank 2. "A Framework for the Conclusion of a Peace Treaty between Egypt and Israel"- Israel to withdraw its troops from the Sinai Peninsula and restore full diplomatic relations with Egypt. Egypt, in turn, would be compelled to allow Israeli ships to use, and pass through the Suez Canal and Straits of Tiran. 3. US to provide financial assistance to both. President Carter of the USA played a vital role in setting up formal negotiations between the two sides, which began in September 1978 at Camp David (near Washington). With Carter acting as intermediary, the talks led to a peace treaty being signed in Washington in March 1979. The main points agreed were: - The state of war that had existed between Egypt and Israel since 1948 was now ended - Israel promised to withdraw its troops from Sinai - Egypt promised not to attack Israel again and guaranteed to supply her with oil from - the recently opened wells in southern Sinai; - Israeli ships could use the Suez Canal. *[Why did both the parties agree to negotiate peace? ]* President Sadat had become convinced that Israel could not be destroyed by force and that it was foolish to keep on wasting Egypt\'s resources in fruitless wars; but it took great courage to be the first Arab leader to meet the Israelis face to face. Even to talk with Israeli leaders meant conceding that Egypt recognized the lawful existence of the state of Israel. He knew that the PLO and the more aggressive Arab states, Iraq and Syria, would bitterly resent any approach. In spite of the dangers, Sadat offered to go to Israel and talk to the Knesset (Israeli parliament). The Israelis were suffering economic problems, partly because of their enormous defence expenditure, and partly because of a world recession. The USA was pressing them to settle their differences with at least some of the Arabs. They accepted Sadat\'s offer; he visited Israel in November 1977, and Menachem Begin, the Israeli prime minister, visited Egypt the following month. **Reaction towards the accord** The treaty was condemned by the PLO and most other Arab states (except Sudan and Morocco) and there was clearly a long way to go before similar treaties could be signed by Israel with Syria and Jordan. World opinion began to move against Israel and to accept that the PLO had a good case; but when the USA tried to bring the PLO and Israel together in an international conference, the Israelis would not co-operate. In November 1980 Begin announced that Israel would never return the Golan Heights to Syria, not even in exchange for a peace treaty; and they would never allow the West Bank to become part of an independent Palestinian state; that would be a mortal threat to Israel\'s existence. At the same time, resentment mounted among West Bank Arabs at the Israeli policy of establishing Jewish settlements on land owned by Arabs. Many observers feared fresh violence unless Begin\'s government adopted a more moderate approach. The peace also seemed threatened for a time when President Sadat was assassinated by some extremist Muslim soldiers while he was watching a military parade (October 1981). They believed that he had betrayed the Arab and Muslim cause by doing a deal with the Israelis. However, Sadat\'s successor, Hosni Mubarak, bravely announced that he would continue the Camp David agreement. There was a "Cold peace" between Egypt and Israel. [EVALUATION] - The future of the city of Jerusalem, which both the Israelis and Palestinians wish to have serve as their capital, was notably and intentionally left out of this agreement, as it was (and remains) a highly contentious issue. - The United Nations never formally accepted the first agreement of the accords, the so-called "Framework for Peace in the Middle East," because it was written without Palestinian representation and input. - Watershed accord -- demonstrated the power of international bargaining at the topmost levels. - Though the accords achieved limited success, a beginning had been made. - Carter's role -- why was he so insistent on brokering the peace? **Intifada** For most of the 1980s the Arab-Israeli feud was overshadowed by the Iran-Iraq War which occupied much of the Arab world\'s attention. But beginning in December 1987 there were massive demonstrations by Palestinians living in the refugee camps of the Gaza Strip and the West Bank.The intifada (\'shaking off\'), as it was known, was a long campaign of civil disobedience involving strikes, non­ payment of taxes, and an attempt to boycott Israeli products. They were protesting against repressive Israeli policies and the brutal behaviour of Israeli troops in the camps and in the occupied territories. An Israeli clampdown failed to quell the intifada, which continued for over three years. The Israelis\' tough methods earned them UN and worldwide condemnation. **[Oslo Peace Accords (1993)]** [Assessment of the main features: ] The election of a less aggressive government (Labour) in Israel in June 1992 raised hopes for better relations with the Palestinians. Prime Minister Yitzak Rabin and Foreign Minister Shimon Peres both believed in negotiation, and were prepared to make concessions in order to achieve a lasting peace. Yasser Arafat, the PLO leader, responded and talks opened. But there was so much mutual suspicion and distrust after all the years of hostility that progress was difficult. However, both sides persevered and by early 1996, remarkable changes had taken place. This, the first major breakthrough, took place at a conference in Oslo, and became known as the Oslo Accords. It was agreed that: - Israel formally recognized the PLO - The PLO recognized Israel\'s right to exist and promised to give up terrorism - The Palestinians were to be given limited self-rule in Jericho (on the West Bank) and in part of the Gaza Strip. areas occupied by Israel since the 1967 war. Israeli troops would be withdrawn from these areas. Extremist groups on both sides opposed the agreement.\ The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine still wanted an independent Palestinian state.\ Israeli settlers on the West Bank were against all concessions to the PLO. However, the moderate leaders on both sides showed great courage and determination, especially Yossi Beilin, the Israeli deputy foreign minister. and Mahmoud Abbas (also known as Abu Mazen), one of Arafat\'s advisers. Two years later they took an even more momentous step forward, building on the Oslo Accords. [Why did the Oslo Accord of 1993 fail to bring peace?] Lack of Trust between Parties: Both Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) doubted each other\'s commitment to the accord. Israel questioned whether the PLO would genuinely renounce violence, while Palestinians doubted Israel\'s intent to withdraw from occupied territories. This mistrust hindered the implementation of agreed-upon measures. Ambiguity in Key Issues: The accord deferred major issues like the status of Jerusalem, the right of return for Palestinian refugees, and the borders of a future Palestinian state. The absence of clear solutions created room for disagreements and prolonged tensions. These unresolved matters fuelled scepticism and undermined confidence in the peace process. Rise of Extremist Groups: Extremist groups on both sides opposed the agreement, viewing it as a betrayal of their causes. Groups like Hamas intensified attacks on Israel, while Israeli extremists, including the assassin of Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin, undermined peace efforts. This violence destabilized the fragile trust built by the accord. Continued Israeli Settlements: Israel's expansion of settlements in the West Bank during the peace process angered Palestinians. The settlements were seen as encroachments on Palestinian land, violating the spirit of the agreement. This fuelled resentment and hindered progress toward peace. Weak Enforcement Mechanisms: The accord lacked robust enforcement mechanisms to ensure compliance by both parties. Without international oversight or consequences for violations, breaches went unchecked. This lack of accountability allowed mistrust and hostilities to persist. Leadership and Political Instability: The assassination of Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin in 1995 dealt a significant blow to the peace process. His successors lacked his commitment to Oslo, and leadership changes in both Israel and Palestine disrupted the continuity of negotiations. Economic Disparities: Palestinians faced economic hardships due to continued restrictions and lack of sovereignty, fostering resentment toward the process. The failure to address economic inequalities made it difficult to achieve grassroots support for peace. External Interference: Regional powers and international actors sometimes exacerbated tensions by supporting opposing sides. For instance, some Arab states and external groups provided support to factions that rejected the accord, complicating peace efforts.