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Overview of Anthropology Holistic Approach: Examines human behavior across all cultures and time periods. Insider's Perspective: Focuses on understanding cultures from the viewpoint of those within them. Patterns and Tendencies: Analyzes recurring themes in human behavior. Four Subfields of Anthrop...

Overview of Anthropology Holistic Approach: Examines human behavior across all cultures and time periods. Insider's Perspective: Focuses on understanding cultures from the viewpoint of those within them. Patterns and Tendencies: Analyzes recurring themes in human behavior. Four Subfields of Anthropology Archaeology: Studies material remains to understand past human behavior and cultures. Methods: Systematic excavation, radiocarbon dating. Questions: How did people live? What has changed over time? Examples: Rock rings, culturally modified trees. Biological Anthropology: Explores human behavior in relation to biological factors. Methods: Genetic analysis, lab techniques. Questions: When did modern humans appear? What genetic conditions exist? Linguistic Anthropology: Investigates the role of language in cultural contexts. Methods: Recording and analyzing spoken language. Questions: How does language shape culture? Cultural Anthropology: Examines cultural practices and beliefs. Methods: Ethnography, participant observation. Questions: How do cultures differ and interact? Key Concepts Ethnography: Detailed description of a culture, seeking an insider’s knowledge (emic perspective). Ethnology: Comparative study of cultures, focusing on similarities and differences (etic perspective). Cultural Relativism: Understanding cultures on their own terms, avoiding ethnocentrism. Culture: A complex whole, including beliefs, practices, symbols, and shared experiences. Research Methods Culture and methods Participant Observation: Immersing in a community to observe and participate in daily life. Strengths: Rich data, contextual understanding. Limitations: Time-consuming, potential bias, observer effect. Emic Perspectives: Perspective of the peoples lives, of the point of view from the “studied culture” Insiders perspective, Subjective perspective , Insiders point of view Ethnography (same culture) (Ancetral lines) (description), Genralizing Etic Perspectives: Perspective of the observer Anthropoligists perspective Anthropology “expert” Objective perspective Outsiders point of view Interpretation based on research methods Comparison, universals Ethnology (diffrent cultures) (Lens textbook)(theory) Specific Example: Phonetics- Study of sounds that are made by all humans make regardless of languages Example: Phonemics- Studys of a sound of a particular language Positivism: Emphasizes objective observation and measurable behaviors. *etic Phenomenology: Focuses on subjective experiences and the meanings people attach to their actions.*emic Important Figures Franz Boas: Advocated for historical particularism, emphasizing unique cultural histories and local perspectives. This overview encapsulates the essential elements of your notes, highlighting the diversity and complexity of anthropology as a discipline. EB Tylor- He believed that there was a functional basis for the development of society and religion, which he determined was universal. Tylor maintained that all societies passed through three basic stages of development: from savagery, through barbarism to civilization. Herbert Spencer- He was among the first to claim that human society can be studied scientifically, and he ranks with Edward B. Tylor and Lewis Henry Morgan as one of the three prominent sociocultural evolutionists of the 19th century. Introduction to Economic Systems Economic Systems (Modes of Subsistence) 1. Foraging (Oldest) - Definition: Exclusively gathering food through hunting, collecting, fishing, and trapping; does not involve food production. - Labor: Small, kin-based groups; flexible roles (men as hunters, women as gatherers). - Property: Minimal physical property; individuals own what they harvest. No land ownership. - Land Use: Extensive; uses large areas but may not use all land continuously, often seasonal. - Sustainability: Sustainable if balanced with resource regeneration; relies on seasonal movement. - Change: Influenced by the introduction of other economic systems. - Tools: Example: Tahltan people use specific tools for hunting and gathering. 2. Horticulture  - Definition: Cultivation of domesticated plants in gardens; began approximately 10-12,000 years ago. - Labor: More gendered roles; men often clear land while women plant and harvest. - Property: Ownership of crops, but land is not permanently owned due to shifting cultivation (2-3 years before moving). - Land Use: Extensive; requires larger areas for crop rotation and regeneration. - Sustainability: Generally sustainable unless impacted by agricultural expansion or capitalism. - Change: Faces challenges from industrial and agricultural pressures. - Tools: Light tools like digging sticks and mortars. 3. Pastoralism - Definition: Based on herding and raising livestock for milk and meat; common in arid regions with unpredictable rainfall. - Labor: Gendered, with men moving herds and women managing the home base; nomadic or transhumant lifestyles. - Property: Families own animals; land is communally used for grazing. - Land Use: Extensive; requires large areas for animal grazing and movement. - Sustainability: Can be sustainable long-term unless restricted by land use policies or agricultural expansion. - Change: Affected by agricultural and industrial encroachment. - Tools: Include milking equipment and herding tools. 4. Intensive Agriculture - Definition: Large-scale production of food using domesticated plants; relies on irrigation and fertilizers. - Labor: Not all community members farm; often family-based labor but can include hired help. - Property: Ownership of land, often leading to surplus production for sale - Land Use: Intensive; high input of resources for maximum yield. - Sustainability: High potential for sustainability but can lead to soil degradation and resource depletion if mismanaged. - Change: Continuous evolution influenced by technology and market demands. - Tools: Heavy machinery like tractors and plows. 5. Industrial Capitalism (Youngest) - Definition: Dominated by machine-based food production aimed at profit; linked to urban areas and corporate ownership. - Labor: Specialized labor forces; less direct connection to food production. - Property: Concentrated land ownership; corporate control over agricultural practices. - Land Use: Intensive; high levels of mechanization and production. - Sustainability: Often criticized for unsustainable practices due to profit motives and resource exploitation. - Change: Rapid changes driven by technological advancements and market needs. - Tools: Industrial machinery, processing plants. Emic Examples Tahltan People: Ongoing research highlights their hunting practices and the importance of land to their identity, shaped by historical and contemporary pressures from colonialism and industrialization. Maisin People: An example of horticulture, where cultivation practices are closely tied to cultural traditions and ecological knowledge. Consumption and Exchange (Oct 2) Exchange Theory: Reciprocity - generalized, balanced, negative/unbalanced All societies Foragers, horticulturalists and pastoralists Redistribution- someone collects a lot and then gives it away Horticultural societies, some forgers, some pastoral Market Exchange- goods and services for sale Agricultural, industry Reciprocity Reciprocity refers to transactions between two parties involving goods and services of roughly equal value. It is foundational in building social relationships and trust. 1.A. Generalized Reciprocity Definition: No concern for the exact value of what is exchanged. Timeline: No fixed timeline for when the return should occur. Relationship: Typically occurs between people who know and trust each other. Debt Creation: Creates a social debt that may be repaid in the future. Example: Offering directions to someone; you expect that kindness to be returned later. Lunch with a friend, where one person pays this time and the other pays next time. 1.B. Balanced Reciprocity Definition: Concern for the equal value of the exchanged goods or services. Timeline: Can involve immediate or delayed returns. Relationship: May involve acquaintances or less personal relationships. Debt Creation: Creates a more explicit obligation to return equivalent value. Example: Entering into a contract where one party provides a service or product in exchange for payment at a specified time. 1.C. Unbalanced (Negative) Reciprocity Definition: One party benefits more than the other, leading to a disparity in the exchange. Timeline: May involve a conscious attempt to gain advantage over the other party. Example: Theft is the most extreme form. Less extreme examples include gift-giving where one party does not reciprocate or charitable donations where the giver does not expect anything in return. Redistribution Redistribution involves the centralized collection of goods, which are then distributed back to the community. It often serves social and economic functions, reinforcing community ties and obligations. Definition: Centralized collection of goods and services followed by their distribution to the community. Mechanism: An individual, family, or community gathers resources and then redistributes them, often through formal or informal systems. Obligation Creation: Creates obligations within the community; those who receive may feel compelled to give back in some way, fostering interdependence. Social Significance: Often used to demonstrate wealth or status, as well as to support communal welfare. Surplus Requirement: Requires surplus goods to be effective, highlighting the importance of resource accumulation. Example: Potlatches among Indigenous communities, where hosts give away wealth to reinforce social ties and status. Altruism- what are human beings up to, kind of cooperation, without obvious return for one party, might be a risk for you Within the family, helping children with university Reciprocal altruism - nothing new Risk Reduction Kinship and Descent Kinship Definition: Relations: Connections among family members through blood, marriage, or adoption (etic perspective). Knowledge: Insider understanding of recognizing relatives and appropriate behaviors (emic perspective). Functions: Establishes expectations and responsibilities within family structures. Systems: Patterns of Relationships: Kinship systems organize familial ties. Charts: Visual representations that depict kinship relationships. Terminology: Terms that clarify relationships, combining both insider (emic) and outsider (etic) knowledge. Examples of Kinship Systems Inuit Kinship System: Known for its intricate terminology, reflecting multiple familial roles. Haudenosaunee Kinship System: Highlights matrilineal descent and the significance of clan relationships. Descent Systems Descent Groups: Communities with shared ancestry, providing social identity and support. Membership Claim: Often traced to a common ancestor, whether historical or symbolic. Purpose of Descent Systems: Provides identity and social space. Defines rights and responsibilities. Establishes labor roles and protection mechanisms. Regulates marriage practices. Types of Descent Systems Unilineal Descent (membership traced through one line): 1.A. Patrilineal Descent: Membership through the father's line. Children belong to the father’s lineage. Common in pastoral and agricultural societies; encourages patrilocal residence post-marriage. Patriarchal authority is prevalent. 1.B. Matrilineal Descent: Membership through the mother’s line. Common in about 15% of cultures, including foragers like the Tahltan and horticultural societies. Often patriarchal structures remain, with leadership chosen by women. Couples may live matrilocally after marriage. Non-Unilineal Descent (membership traced through multiple lines): 2.A. Bilateral Descent: Membership through both maternal and paternal lines. Found in approximately ⅓ of cultures, fostering strong nuclear families. Encourages flexibility in group membership and typically leads to bilocal or neo-local residence after marriage. 2.B. Double Descent: Involves inheritance through both maternal and paternal lines, where different types of property are passed down through each side. Example: Among the Bangante in Cameroon, cattle may be inherited from the mother, while village rights come from the father. 2.C. Ambilineal Descent: Allows for choice of affiliation with either maternal or paternal line, providing flexibility in identity and support.