MIAD 818 - Theories of International Development PDF
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Ahmadu Bello University
2018
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This course material for MIAD 818, Theories of International Development, provides an overview of various development theories for masters students. It covers the theory's origins, analysis of causes, practice implications, evidence supporting the theory, critiques, and weaknesses. This course is from Ahmadu Bello University, 2018.
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MIAD 818: Theories of International Development Distance Learning Centre Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Nigeria MIAD 818: Theories of International Development...
MIAD 818: Theories of International Development Distance Learning Centre Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Nigeria MIAD 818: Theories of International Development Course Material Programme: Masters in International Affairs and Diplomacy (MIAD) i Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development © Distance Learning Centre, ABU Zaria, Nigeria, 2018 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the Director, Distance Learning Centre, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria. First published 2018 in Nigeria Published and Printed by Ahmadu Bello University Press Limited Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria. Tel.: 08065949711. e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material ii MIAD 818: Theories of International Development Course Writers/ Development Team Editor Prof M.I. Sule Course Materials Development Overseer Dr. Usman Abubakar Zaria Subject Matter Expert Usman Muideen Subject Matter Reviewer Adakole A. John Language Reviewer Adekunle Adeyemi O. Instructional Designers/Graphics Ibrahim Otukoya Course Coordinator Adakole A. John ODL Expert Prof James B. Kantiok iii Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development Contents Title Page…………………………………………………………….………………………. i Copyright Page………………………………………………………..……………………... ii Course Writers/Development Team………………………………………………………... iii Table of Content………………………………..……………………………………………. iv COURSE STUDY GUIDE i. Course Information---------------------------------------------------------------------------- ii. Course Introduction and Description ------------------------------------------------------ iii. Course Prerequisites --------------------------------------------------------------------------- iv. Course Learning Resources ------------------------------------------------------------------ v. Course Objectives and Outcomes ----------------------------------------------------------- vi. Activities to Meet Course Objectives ------------------------------------------------------- vii. Time (To complete Syllabus/Course) ------------------------------------------------------- viii. Grading Criteria and Scale -------------------------------------------------------------- ix. OER Resources --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- x. ABU DLC Academic Calendar ------------------------------------------------------------- xi. Course Structure and Outline --------------------------------------------------------------- xii. STUDY MODULES --------------------------------------------------------------------------- Module 1: ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Study Session 1: Conceptual Perspectives on Development and Underdevelopment ----------------------------------------------------------- Study Session 2: International Development as a Field of Study -------------------------- Study Session 3: What is Modernisation Theory? ------------------------------------------- Study Session 4: Development Theories ------------------------------------------------------ Module 2------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Study Session 1: Four Main Theories of Development ------------------------------------- Study Session 2: Dependency Theory --------------------------------------------------------- Study Session 3: Theory of Pluralism --------------------------------------------------------- Study Session 4: Pluralism in International Development —------------------------------ Module 3: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material iv MIAD 818: Theories of International Development Study Session 1: Ethics and International Development: The Development Ethics Paradigm --------------------------------------------------------------------- Study Session 2: Lenin and Imperialism in International Development ------------------ Study Session 3: The Concept of Normativism ---------------------------------------------- Study Session 4: Structural Functionalism --------------------------------------------------- Study Session 5: The Classical Marxist Theory --------------------------------------------- Glossary ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- v Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development Course Study Guide Course Information Course Code: MIAD 818 Course Title: Theories of International Development Credit Units: Three Credit Units Year of Study: Year One Semester: Second Semester Course Introduction and Description Introduction: In this course, we seek to acquaint you (student) with the relevant theories that aid your understanding of the evolution (i.e. processes, structure, dynamics and implications of the contemporary world development order). In furtherance of this, we will appraise the processes, dimensions and levels of global economic development. Description: We will begin the course by examining your beliefs about the nature of development, and then proceed to analyse the various theories of development and Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material 1 MIAD 818: Theories of International Development their emergence from liberal, Marxist and critical/post-development frameworks. Main school of thought (e.g. modernisation, underdevelopment theories i.e., dependency/world-systems, liberation and post development theories) will be studied individually within the social science paradigm. i. COURSE PREREQUISITES You should note that although this course has no subject pre-requisite, you are expected to have: 1. Satisfactory level of English proficiency 2. Basic computer operations proficiency 3. Online interaction proficiency 4. Web 2.0 and social media interactive skills ii. COURSE LEARNING RESOURCES i. Course Textbooks Allen T. and Thomas, A. (2000). Poverty and Development into the 21st Century, London, Oxford University Press. David Moses, (2010): Adventures in Aid Land- The Anthropology of Professionals in International Development Bergmann Books, Oxford. New York. Escobar. A. (1995) Encountering Development: The Making and Unmaking of the Third World New York Princeton. Fage, J.D. (2001): A History of Africa, Routledge. Fukuyama Francis (2006): The End of History and the Last Man Free Press. Goldsmith Arthur A. (2012): ―Foreign Aid and Statehood in Africa‖ The MIT Press. Korten D. C. (1995): When Corporations Rule the World. Washington, Barrett- Koehler Publishers. Moshomba, Richard E. (2000): Africa in the Global Economy Lynne Rienner. Partite, T. (2002): The end of Development? Modernity, Post-Modernity and Development London, Pluto Press. Rodney Walter (1982): How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. Washington, Howard 2 Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development University Press. Sahn, David E. Paul A. Dorosh, Stephen D. Younger. (2007): Structural Adjustment Reconsidered. Economic Policy and Poverty in Africa, Cambridge University Press. Utting P. (2003): Promoting Development through Corporate Social Responsibility - Does it Work? Global Future, Third Quarter 2003, Profit and Loss? Corporations and Development, London: World Vision International. iii. COURSE OUTCOMES After studying this course, you should be able to: 1. articulate the following for each major development theory: a. its definition of development b. its analysis of the causes of development or underdevelopment c. its implications for development practice d. the philosophical assumptions about knowledge and values which underlie the theory e. the nature of the evidence available to support the theory f. critiques of the theory and its weaknesses and limitations 2. be familiar with the role assumed or prescribed for students by the various theories; 3. become familiar with emerging alternative perspectives on development and their assumptions; 4. develop a personal approach to development based on reading, experience and reflection and articulate a rationale for that approach. iv. ACTIVITIES TO MEET COURSE OBJECTIVES Specifically, this course shall comprise of the following activities: 1. Studying courseware 2. Listening to course audios 3. Watching relevant course videos 4. Field activities, industrial attachment or internship, laboratory or studio work (whichever is applicable) Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material 3 MIAD 818: Theories of International Development 5. Course assignments (individual and group) 6. Forum discussion participation 7. Tutorials (optional) 8. Semester examinations (CBT and essay-based). v. TIME (TO COMPLETE SYLABUS/COURSE) To cope with this course, you would be expected to commit a minimum of 3 hours a week for the Course. vi. GRADING CRITERIA AND SCALE Grading Criteria A. Formative Assessment Grades will be based on the following: Individual assignments/test (CA 1, 2 etc.) 20 Group assignments (GCA 1, 2 etc.) 10 Discussions/Quizzes/Out of class engagements etc. 10 B. Summative assessment (Semester examination) CBT based 30 Essay based 30 TOTAL 100% C. Grading Scale: A = 70 – 100 B = 60 – 69 C = 50 – 59 F = 0 – 49 D. Feedback Courseware-based: 1. In-text questions and answers (answers preceding references) 4 Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development 2. Self-assessment questions and answers (answers preceding references) Tutor-based: 1. Discussion Forum tutor input 2. Graded Continuous Assessments Student-based: 1. Online programme assessment (administration, learning resource, deployment, and assessment). ix. LINKS TO OPEN EDUCATION RESOURCES OSS Watch provides tips for selecting open source, or for procuring free or open software. SchoolForge and SourceForge are good places to find, create, and publish open software. SourceForge, for one, has millions of downloads each day. Open Source Education Foundation and Open Source Initiative, and other organisation like these, help disseminate knowledge. Creative Commons has a number of open projects from Khan Academy to Curriki where teachers and parents can find educational materials for children or learn about Creative Commons licenses. Also, they recently launched the School of Open that offers courses on the meaning, application, and impact of "openness." Numerous open or open educational resource databases and search engines exist. Some examples include: OEDb: over 10,000 free courses from universities as well as reviews of colleges and rankings of college degree programmes Open Tapestry: over 100,000 open licensed online learning resources for an academic and general audience OER Commons: over 40,000 open educational resources from elementary school through to higher education; many of the elementary, middle, and high school resources are aligned to the Common Core State Standards Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material 5 MIAD 818: Theories of International Development Open Content: a blog, definition, and game of open source as well as a friendly search engine for open educational resources from MIT, Stanford, and other universities with subject and description listings Academic Earth: over 1,500 video lectures from MIT, Stanford, Berkeley, Harvard, Princeton, and Yale JISC: Joint Information Systems Committee works on behalf of UK higher education and is involved in many open resources and open projects including digitising British newspapers from 1620-1900! Other sources for open education resources Universities The University of Cambridge's guide on Open Educational Resources for Teacher Education (ORBIT) OpenLearn from Open University in the UK Global Unesco's searchable open database is a portal to worldwide courses and research initiatives African Virtual University (http://oer.avu.org/) has numerous modules on subjects in English, French, and Portuguese https://code.google.com/p/course-builder/ is Google's open source software that is designed to let anyone create online education courses Global Voices (http://globalvoicesonline.org/) is an international community of bloggers who report on blogs and citizen media from around the world, including on open source and open educational resources Individuals (which include OERs) Librarian Chick: everything from books to quizzes and videos here, includes directories on open source and open educational resources K-12 Tech Tools: OERs, from art to special education Web 2.0: Cool Tools for Schools: audio and video tools 6 Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development Web 2.0 Guru: animation and various collections of free open source software Livebinders: search, create, or organise digital information binders by age, grade, or subject (why re-invent the wheel?) Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material 7 MIAD 818: Theories of International Development 8 Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development xi. COURSE STRUCTURE AND OUTLINE Course Structure WEEK MODULE STUDY ACTIVITY SESSION 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session. Study Session 1 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session Conceptual 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session Week 1 Perspectives on 4. View any other Video/YouTube (https://goo.gl/H4jWbG) Development and 5. View referred Animation (https://goo.gl/2THMku) Underdevelopment 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session. Study Session 2 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session Week 2 International 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session Development as a 4. View any other Video/YouTube (https://goo.gl/eUCYnF) Field of Study 5. View referred Animation (https://goo.gl/Q8LZoN) STUDY 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session. MODULE Study Session 3 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session Week 3 1 What is 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session Modernisation 4. View any other Video/YouTube (https://goo.gl/M6jcWB) Theory? 5. View referred Animation (https://goo.gl/HBgeXb) 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session. Study Session 4 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session Week 4 Development 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session Theories 4. View any other Video/YouTube (https://goo.gl/LRj7da) 5. View referred Animation (https://goo.gl/gfBTLN) Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material 9 MIAD 818: Theories of International Development 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session. Study Session 1 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session Week 5 Four Main 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session Theories of 4. View any other Video/YouTube (https://goo.gl/5DWZx6) Development 5. View referred Animation (https://goo.gl/KA5gZW) 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session. Study Session 2 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session STUDY Week 6 Dependency 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session MODULE Theory 4. View any other Video/YouTube (https://goo.gl/VDh7Nb) 2 5. View referred Animation (https://goo.gl/KA5gZW) 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session. Study Session 3 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session Week 7 Theory of 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session Pluralism 4. View any other Video/YouTube (https://goo.gl/hwdUtD) 5. View referred Animation (https://goo.gl/AmR5iK) 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session. Week 8 Study Session 4 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session Pluralism in 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session International 4. View any other Video/YouTube (https://goo.gl/3m3kGv) Development 5. View referred Animation (https://goo.gl/fVa6qe) 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session. Study Session 1 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session 10 Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development Week 9 Ethics and 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session International 4. View any other Video/YouTube (https://goo.gl/GUrbj6) Development: The 5. View referred Animation (https://goo.gl/LLoyxG) Development STUDY Ethics Paradigm MODULE 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session. 3 Study Session 2 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session Week 10 Lenin and 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session Imperialism in 4. View any other Video/YouTube (https://goo.gl/jhBr3c) International 5. View referred Animation (https://goo.gl/wLfvvL) Development 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session. Study Session 3 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session The Concept of 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session Week 11 Normativism 4. View any other Video/YouTube (https://goo.gl/We1ESG) 5. View referred Animation (https://goo.gl/mujfJj) 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session. Study Session 4 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session Week 12 Structural 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session Functionalism 4. View any other Video/YouTube (https://goo.gl/hQD1XZ) 5. View referred Animation (https://goo.gl/VN2H55) 6. Read Chapter/page of Standard/relevant text. Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material 11 MIAD 818: Theories of International Development Study Session 5 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session. Classical Marxist 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session Theory. 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session Week 13 4. View any other Video/YouTube (https://goo.gl/h5Uhjx) 5. View referred Animation (https://goo.gl/riYvzC) Week 13 REVISION/TUTORIALS (On Campus or Online) & CONSOLIDATION WEEK Weeks 14 & SEMESTER EXAMINATION 15 12 Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development Course Outline MODULE 1: Study Session 1: Conceptual Perspectives on Development and Underdevelopment Study Session 2: International Development as a Field of Study Study Session 3: What is Modernisation Theory? Study Session 4: Development Theories MODULE 2: Study Session 1: Four Main Theories of Development Study Session 2: Dependency Theory Study Session 3: Theory of Pluralism Study Session 4: Pluralism in International Development MODULE 3: Study Session 1: Ethics and International Development: The Development Ethics Paradigm Study Session 2: Lenin and Imperialism in International Development Study Session 3: The Concept of Normativism Study Session 4: Structural Functionalism Study Session 5: Classical Marxist Theory. Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material 13 MIAD 818: Theories of International Development Study Modules MODULE 1 Contents: Study Session 1: Conceptual Perspectives on Development and Underdevelopment Study Session 2: International Development as a field of study Study Session 3: What is Modernisation Theory? Study Session 4: Development Theories Study Session 1 Conceptual Perspectives on Development and Underdevelopment Section and Subsection Headings: Introduction 1.0 Learning Outcome 2.0 Main Contents 2.1 - The Meaning of Development 2.2 - How to Develop 2.3 - The Concept of Underdevelopment 2.4 - Under Development and Dependency Theory 3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion 4.0 Self-Assessment Questions 5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities) 6.0 References/Further Readings 14 Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development Fig. 1.1.1 Introduction: Development and underdevelopment are amongst the most famous concepts we use in describing or characterising the contemporary world or nation states. For instance, we often use such terms as developed, less developed, developing and underdeveloped countries. The two notions have been subjected to and still intensively studied from various disciplinary perspectives – social sciences, public administration, geography etc. Their study has led to the emergence of a specialised academic area or field called development studies and as a bourgeoning and still growing body, of literature called development literature. Both development and underdevelopment take place at various level, individual, group, community, rural, national, regional and international. Each of these constitutes an area of specialisation in the study of development and underdevelopment, grassroots/rural development, national development, regional development etc. Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material 15 MIAD 818: Theories of International Development This course is concerned with development at the international/global/world level i.e., international development. The main focus is on the theories that have been advanced by social scientists which aid our understanding of the evolution, structure, processes, impact, challenges and prospects of development on a world scale. It should be stressed that a lot of ambiguities and controversies surround the issues of development and underdevelopment. In other words, social scientists have not arrived at consensus on a number of yardstick surrounding the two interrelated issues. These include: i. Conceptual and operational meanings of the two ideas explained and distinguished. ii. Strategies or approach by which development can be accomplished or promoted at various levels. iii. Causes for the developmental disparities within and across territorial borders of contemporary nation states, regions and international levels. iv. Whether development is essentially a goal (i.e., an end) or process (i.e. a means of an end) or both. What are the causes of underdevelopment and how can they be redressed or minimised? As said, there are contending views amongst social scientists, political leaders/policymakers and analysts on these issues. 1.0 Study Session Learning Outcome After studying this session, I expect you to be able to: 1. Describe development. 2. Define underdevelopment. 2.0 Main Contents 16 Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development 2.1 The Meaning of Development Fig. 1.1.2 Development is universally one of the most famous concepts in the contemporary world, attractive and admired by many. Despite popular usage, development has defied precise conceptual and operational meanings. The concept means different things to different people which is why it is often said to be value loaded and controversial. The concept has been explained from the following major perspectives: i. General ii. Modernisation (Eurocentric) iii. Economics iv. Social/Human v. Recent. The meanings given here are briefs and sketchy. So as Postgraduate students, you are expected to go through literature in order to have a thorough knowledge of the various views of the term development. General Perspectives (i.e., general consensus on what development refers to: Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material 17 MIAD 818: Theories of International Development Despite divergent views, there seems to be a general consensus that development refer to inter-alia to progress, uplift or improvement in human life or living conditions/standard. Improvement could cover the totality or certain aspects of human life – social, economic, political, technological etc. This type of development is often considered to be a holistic and multidimensional phenomenon, which is why it‘s often talk of social development, economic development, political development, technological development. There is also a general consensus that development is a goal (i.e., an end or state of being we wish to accomplish, i.e., human life or living condition) and a process (i.e., means to an end) i.e., strategies, approaches or methods by which set goals/ends could be accomplished or promoted. Above, therefore, are some of the consensus view point about what development is all about. 2.1.1 Development as Modernisation (Eurocentric Conception) In the early liberal West European and North American Social Scientists, development is synonymous or equated with the features or characteristics of their societies in all spheres or aspects – social, economic, political, technological etc. These included high level of application of science and technology, industrialisation material comfort, mass production of modern goods and services, structural differentiation, secularism, political stability. While the above features constitute modernity and hence modern society, their absence, i.e., low-level of science and technology, low-level of production capacities, lack of secularism and structural differentiation, political instability, constitutes characteristics of a traditional society (i.e., tradition). Modernisation, therefore, viewed as a transition from a traditional to a modern society. It is both process and a stage of human development. A lot has been written on modernisation by sociologist, economist and political scientists all pointing to the characteristics of European and North American societies to be synonymous with development fundamentally referred to. 18 Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development This was why this conception is often characterised as Eurocentric of the modernisation theories. W.W Rostow (an economist) was most famous with his body, the stages of economic growth. Development is also often conceived as a goal or an end we wish to accomplish or attain i.e. a desirable human living condition characterised by optimal satisfaction basic human needs of adequate and decent food, shelter, clothing, education, health etc. which in philosophy concerns refers to the good life i.e. development means the good life. Development is also often viewed as a process or a means to an end i.e. the strategies or methods that can be used for the uplift or improvement of human living standard. Yet to most people development is both a goal and end and a process means to an end. Development as modernisation or Eurocentric conception. For most people development is synonymous or equated with the characteristics of the countries were referred to as advanced or developed today, Europe and North America including now a few countries like japan etc. In other words, the present social, economic, political and technological characteristics of these which include high level of the application of science and technology, material comfort, industrialisation, political stability secularism structural differentiation etc. constitute what development is about. In-text Question 1 What is Development? Answer: Development is a process that creates growth, progress, positive change or the addition of physical, economic, environmental, social and demographic components. Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material 19 MIAD 818: Theories of International Development 2.1.2 On the concept of development Fig. 1.1.4 Development is universally one of the most popular concepts widely used, admired and sought after. Despite its popularity, however, it has defied precise and universally accepted meaning both conceptual and operationally. It means different things to different persons which is why it is often said to be one of the most controversial and value loaded questions. Some of the major meanings of development as explained in the literature includes the following: 2.1.3 General perspectives Fig. 1.1.5 20 Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development Despite divergent views, there seems to be a general consensus that development refers to upliftment or improvement of the totality or certain aspect of human life- social, economic, political technological etc. In other words, it is both a holistic and multi-dimensional phenomenon refers to all or certain aspects of human life. We often talk to about social, economic, political, technological development etc. or aspects within this broad sphere educational, industrial, health, agricultural development. Development from this perspective therefore means transition from traditional to modern society. We will discuss this in details under the modernisation theory of world development. This is often considered or criticised as a Europe and North American centred conception of development. 2.1.4 Development conceived in economic terms To classical and neoclassical social scientist (Adams Smith, David Ricardo etc.) development means economic growth which refer to high level of material productivity of a social i.e. goods and services whose consumption and usage uplift or improve human living conditions. Economic growth is measurable by two indicators indices, gross national product (GNP) and per capita income (PCI). GNP = total goods and services produced by annum by a country calculated in monetary terms or values and PCI = GNP Total population of a country. In the other words, development refers essentially to high-level of material productivity of a society which is assumed to be shared equally by all the citizens. Fig. 1.1.6 Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material 21 MIAD 818: Theories of International Development Studies have revealed, however that economic growth per se does not automatically translate to improvement or upliftment of human living standard. This conception, therefore, has been discredited as fallacious and does not reveal realities of human life. It has been discovered that due to gross distribution of resources, skewed in favour of a tiny minority but the dominant ruling and economic class, economic growth figures per se do not mean much. It is only a potential for both not an indicator of high level of living standard of the generality of the people. Nigeria is a typical example where such has unfolded fairly high and impressive economic figures, budgetary interiors, claim to being the largest economy in Africa, yet the majority of its population is afflicted by visible poverty in both absolute and relative terms. The point therefore is that it is possible for a country to have impressive economic figures or statistics while the living standards of the majority of its citizens is nothing to write home about. 2.1.5 Human centred conception of development For a very long time, the economic conception of development remained widely popular/accepted. By and large it became discredited because of its obvious weaknesses faulty assumptions on the relationship between economic growth figures and living conditions of life of the majority of the people. At best, high economic growth figures indicate only the developmental potentials of a country‘s given other factors like good relationship and value system that seeks to distribute resources for the upliftment of human living standard. 22 Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development Fig. 1.1.7 In the developing countries, including Nigeria, economic growth figures have increasingly been recorded with no commensurate improved human welfare. Instead, various forms of crashes including poverty in both absolute and relative terms have been recorded: i. Absolute poverty refers to a condition of human life so degraded by the reasons, illiteracy and squalor. It is a condition where people cannot meet their basic needs of adequate and decent food, clothing, health, housing, education. ii. Relative poverty is a condition where some people, classes or geographical areas are materially poorer or better off than others. The point we are making here is that, it is possible for a country to record impressive economic growth figures while its human living condition is nothing to write home about. A country in concrete terms, it refers to the maximum satisfaction of basic human needs of adequate and qualitative food, health, shelter, clothing, education, modern social and infrastructural services like electricity, pipe borne water, and good roads etc. This conception has been propagated and popularised by the radical or Marxist social scientists. The emphasis on this conception are: a. Meeting basic and concrete human needs b. Meeting basic needs of the greatest proportion of the people which relates to the issue of equality of access to societal resources is distribution rather than productivity emphasised by the previous conception. c. Emphasises especially by the core Marxist, improvements in the levels of productive forces, that is, instruments of production, productivity, ownership, of the means of production (people oriented) and social relationship of production (equality). Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material 23 MIAD 818: Theories of International Development Dudley Seers offered a human centred definition of development when he said: the question to ask about a country‘s development are basically three: a. What has been happening to poverty? b. What has been happening to unemployment? c. What has been happening to inequality? If all these have declined from high levels, then beyond doubt this has been a period of development for the country. If one or two of these central problems have been growing worse especially if all three have, it will be strange to call the resort development even if the per capita income doubled. The import of this definition is that development refers to the reduction to the barest minimum levels of poverty, unemployment and inequality in the society. In other words, development have to do with the elimination or minimisation of this human problems. Going forward, Dudley Seers added the issue of self-reliance as a key component of development that development has to do with the capacity of the people to generate and sustain their own self-improvement, that is, relying on their own resources, technology, skills and knowledge. In reality, the new development cannot be imposed from above or externally generated. It is a phenomenon that is self-generated. Externally generated and propel development is referred to as dependent development which is banned of the developing countries. In other words, what they are now experiencing are not autonomous but dependent development. Development as applied to countries also has a geographical or spatial dimension, that is, must cover every geographical area of country and not restricted to particular locations like the urban areas. Development therefore has to do with improving the quality of human life all social classes living in different geographical areas. Recent Conceptions of Development 24 Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development In addition to the issues raised above, the meaning of development is being increasingly expanded to include such issue like democracy, human rights, free market economy, environmental control, gender equality and crisis free society. The key point to note is that development is a dynamic phenomenon, that is, un- ending as an end and a means to an end. In-text Question 1 Identify four basic characteristics of development? Answer: a. Improved economy b. Social amenities c. Good shelter d. Enough employment opportunities. 2.2 How to Develop Like on the meaning, social scientists have not agreed on best method or strategies by which development can be promoted or accomplished. Two major theoretical perspectives have emerged on this viz modernisation school/theory/perspective and Marxist underdevelopment and dependency theory (UDT). The modernisation school propounded by liberal Western social scientist contends that for the contemporary underdevelopment countries to develop, they must undergo the historical experiences of the present advanced/developed countries. In other words, they must face and resolve the societal crisis of development stage by stage or sequences rather than confronting them all at once – identity, identification, legitimacy, participation, nation building etc. More on this later. This was how Europe and North American society‘s development and every other society has to undergo or pass through this historical process. Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material 25 MIAD 818: Theories of International Development 2.3 The Concept of Underdevelopment Fig. 1.1.8 Like the roots concept of development, there is no consensus among best social scientists about what the concept of underdevelopment conceptually and operationally refers to or means. The concept, that is, underdevelopment has been explained from two dominant theoretical perspectives or schools viz: modernisation and underdevelopment and dependency theory which you will examine under theories of international development. We will therefore only briefly explain the concept from these two perspectives. 2.3.1 Modernisation Perspective For the modernisation theorists or scholars, underdevelopment is the absence or lack of development as earlier explained. In other words, it is the opposite of development. In concrete terms, it refers to the human living standard or condition characterised inter alia by inability to meet basic human needs, material poverty, low technological and productive capacity etc. In a nutshell, it refers to a degraded or low quality of human living condition or life. 26 Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development Fig. 1.1.9 From this perspective, underdevelopment is attributed to factors internal to the societies afflicted by it. In other words, communities or societies which can be described as underdeveloped are the main causes of their lack of or absence of development due to factors such as lack of capital, technology, skills, conservatism etc. According to the scholars of this perspective underdevelopment can only be overcome only if the societies afflicted by it follow the developmental paths of the present developed societies, that is, the strategies, policies and approaches they used to reach where they are today. The paths or approaches varied across aspects of human life, social, economic and political. In economics, we have various theories about the stages of growth, the most famous of which is W. W. Rostow. In political science, we have theories of political development. The general argument is that while the developed countries approached their development in a sequence of stages, the underdeveloped or developing countries are trying to solve all aspects of their development at once. 2.4 Underdevelopment and Dependency Theory Underdevelopment and dependency theory emerged as a critique of the modernisation theory propounded by Marxist scholars such as Paul Baran, Gunder Frank, Walter Rodney, Samir Amin, Hamza Alavi etc. According to this perspective, underdevelopment is not the opposite, absence or lack of development Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material 27 MIAD 818: Theories of International Development as earlier explained. It is not caused by factors internal to the societies afflicted by it; it is not also original to them. Rather, underdevelopment refers to dialectical relationship between societies or countries which is characterised by exploitation, unequal exchange and domination of one or some by others. It is a situation where one society benefits or develops at the expense of the order due to the nature of relationships between them. Fig. 1.1.10 Development or underdevelopment according to Gunder Frank means that, the metropolis- satellite or centre-periphery paradigm was developed to explain the uses of development and underdevelopment on the world scale. According to the perspective, underdevelopment can only be overcome if the country afflicted delink or break off from the exploitative relationship between them and the developed countries. They should instead pursue self-reliance and autonomous development strategies. In-text Question What is underdevelopment? Answer: Underdevelopment refers to dialectical relationship between societies or countries which is characterised by exploitation, unequal exchange and domination of one or some by others. 28 Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development 3.0 Summary/Conclusion In this Session, we introduced you to the concept of development and underdevelopment as a field of study in humanities. Development is often viewed as a process or a means to an end i.e. the strategies or methods that can be used for the uplift or improvement of human living standard. The next study session will expose you to International Development as a Field of Study. 4.0 Self-Assessment Questions 1. Describe the concept of development. 2. How do you measure underdevelopment? 6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities) e.g. a. Visit YouTube add https://goo.gl/H4jWbG Watch the video & summarise in 1 paragraph b. View the animation on add/site https://goo.gl/2THMku and critique it in the discussion forum 6.0 References/Further Readings Aminu, G. (2019). Masters in International Affairs and Diplomacy (MIAD) Lecture note. Department of Political Science & International Studies, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Kaduna Nigeria. Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material 29 MIAD 818: Theories of International Development Study Session 2 International Development as a Field of Study Section and Subsection Headings: Introduction 1.0 Learning Outcome 2.0 Main Contents 2.1 - Evolution of the Contemporary International System and Development 2.2 - Major Phases in the Evolutionary Process 2.3 - How Can We Describe the Contemporary International System? 3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion 4.0 Self-Assessment Questions 5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) 6.0 References/Further Readings Introduction: Having explained the concept of development and underdevelopment, I can be sure that you now have a fair idea of what international development is all about as a concept and field of study. Basically, it refers to the promotion of development on an international global or world scale. In other words, it refers to the promotion of development, within and across nation states and regions of the contemporary world. It entails the overcoming of the characteristics or features of underdevelopment thereby achieving or attaining development as defined. 30 Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development Fig. 1.2.1 As a field of study, international development concerns the study of the levels and structure of human development within and across countries and sub-regions of the world, that is, countries, sub-regions within continents, and hemisphere. More specifically, it refers to the study of: i. Developmental disparities across the world and particularly why some countries or areas are more developed than others and therefore variously referred to as developed, underdeveloped, less developed, developing etc. ii. What are the causes of the developmental disparities? iii. What are the impact of the developmental disparities on societies across the world? iv. Developmental processes higher institutions, approaches, strategies, policies, programmes being employed from the promotion of national, regional and international development. v. What are the relationships between the developed and developing areas and who benefits from what from such relationships? vi. How can development be promoted on an international or global scale thereby minimising existing disparities? Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material 31 MIAD 818: Theories of International Development There has been a growing concern with international development since the 1970s based on the realisation that the contemporary world is a system consisting of various parts who are ultimately interrelated and interdependent in the social, economic and political system and dynamics. It has been realised that gross disparities in the levels of development between sub-region and countries cannot promote global development but rather tensions and conflict which are manifesting today. Mass poverty in the backward areas are causing multi-dimensional conflicts including terrorisms which lead to mass population movement to the developed parts. Just as we have mass rural urban drift in the third world countries, the world is now experiencing population movements from developing to the developed world due to push and pull factors. The population movements create lots of problems for the developed countries. 1.0 Study Session Learning Outcome After studying this session, I expect you to be able to: 1. Explain international development. 2. Analyse international development as a field of study. 2.0 Main Contents 2.1 Evolution of the Contemporary International System and Development Order The processes and institutions that have facilitated the evolution or emergence of the current global and international system are multifarious or diverse. These include: i. Wars of conquest and hegemony ii. Migrations or population movement iii. Trade iv. Colonialism imperialism v. Increasing inventions and sophistication in the instruments of violence or warfare 32 Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development vi. Determination in the spread of religion especially Islam and Christianity vii. Increasing inventions and advancement in transportation technology on land, sea and air. viii. Increasing inventions and advancements in communication or information technology, radio, telegraph, signal, television, telephone, Internet etc. Fig. 1.2.2 Today the world is said to have been globalised, internationalised or integrated in all dimensions of human life, social, economic, political technological and environment. Formally described as a global village, it has become more integrated to become a sitting room. Virtually, no part of the world that is inhabited by human kind is any longer remote, isolated or inaccessible. Whatever happens in any part of the world can now be transmitted live to all parts of the world. Whatever also happens in any part has implications on other parts. People, goods and services now freely move within and across territorial borders of nation-states. Generally, the contemporary world has evolved or emerged through an evolutionary or gradual process overlong historical periods or epochs millions, billions, trillions years according to scientists and historians. The two world religions Islam and Christianity have taught us that Adam and Eve were the first two human kind that were created by the Almighty Creator of all the world known Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material 33 MIAD 818: Theories of International Development and unknown to us today. From two people the world today is inhabited by no less than six billion people according to various estimate with China and India being the largest in population. From two people that inhabited only a small or negligible editorial humankind now inhabits all the land mass of the world save for the harsh deserts. In terms of development it has emerged from primitive stage the state of nature where human being wandered in search of the basic necessities of life, at that time, especially food and water, to the present age of mass production and consumption of goods and services that have tremendously enhanced the quality of human lives or living conditions. This was made possible by increasing inventions and advancement in technology and productive activities from simple wooden, stone and iron tools to the present industrial stage, that is, sophisticated technology. Politically it has emerged from simple politics based on families, clan‘s kinships to large and loose politics such as kingdoms and empires across the world to modern nation states that make up membership of the UNO. Technological inventions in warfare, transportation, production system, communication or information and leadership factors among other factors were critically in the evolution of the contemporary international system and development order. In-text Question What do you understand by the word globalisation? Answer: Globalisation is the process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments worldwide. As a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, globalisation is considered by some as a form of capitalist expansion which entails the integration of local and national economies into a global, unregulated market economy. 2.2 Major Phases in the Evolutionary Process 34 Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development The process of globalisation or internationalisation of the world dates back to when humankind started to settle and exchange goods amongst themselves, that is, trade first by barter. Let us leave out of the pre-historic times in the BC which can be found in history and religions books. Let us consider the modern era, that is, AD. Late 1400s – C1600 Fig. 1.2.3 Countries like Portugal, Britain, Germany and France moved to other parts of the world for adventure, commerce or trade, religious activities etc. It led to discoveries of new worlds and interconnections of people and economies on a global scale, for example, Europe and African, Europe and North and South America and Asia, North America and Africa etc. Europe for instance went and inhabited North America, South America, territories in the Far East like Australia, New Zealand displaced or killed the indigenous population like the Red Indians and Aborigines. This period was characterised by slave trade, where slaves were bought from Africa and transported to Europe and later in mass to North and South Africa to work in the plantations. This marked the period of the triangular slave trade and later trans-Atlantic slave trade. E1700s – 1900s More technological inventions in instruments of warfare, transportation and production led to the increased globalisation and internationalisation of the world. Specific development within this period include: Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material 35 MIAD 818: Theories of International Development i. The industrial revolution 1800s which colonialism and imperialism in search for sources of raw materials and markets for mass goods and services produced in Europe. ii. Integrated wall that emerged with different levels of social, economic, political and technological development. In-text Question Does human being really evolve? Answer: Human evolution is the evolutionary process that led to the emergence of anatomically modern humans, beginning with the evolutionary history of primates – in particular genus Homo – and leading to the emergence of Homo sapiens as a distinct species of the hominid family, the great apes. 2.3 How Can We Describe the Contemporary International System? i. Nation states have replaced kingdoms and empires as the basic political units of the contemporary world. (Endeavour to read up the characteristics of a state) ii. The state makes up membership of the UN, an organisation formed to promote international peace and development. iii. It is also organised into continents and sub-regions who have formed various organisations for the promotion of their respective and collective interests, main economy, political and developmental Europe, North America, South America, Asia and Africa and within each disobedience and regional bodies like Europe etc. iv. There are also various non-state actors who are assuming increasing importance and relevance in shaping contemporary global issues. In terms of development, the world is sharply divided into two: the northern and the southern hemisphere. 36 Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development Fig. 1.2.4 While the former consists of countries that are generally referred to as developed, the latter consists of countries often described as underdeveloped or less developed or developing. This constitutes the north-south divide in terms of development and main subject of international development. The north-south developmental disparity manifests in the fact that the north consists of only about 20% of the total population of the world but it controls 80% of the resources while the south consists of 80% of the total population but controls only about 20% of global resources. Various institutions, organisations or agencies have been established or are concerned with the issues of the promotion of development on a world scale – the UN, EU, ASEAN AU, ECOWAS, NAFTA, LAFTA, World Bank, IMF, WTO, UNCTAD, USAID etc. Various international development programme have also been launched to promote international development – MDGs (Millennium Development Goals), SDGs (Sustainable Development Goals) etc. In-text Question Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material 37 MIAD 818: Theories of International Development Describe the contemporary international system. Answer: Nation states have replaced kingdoms and empires as the basic political units of the contemporary world. 3.0 Summary/Conclusion Study Session two in Module One exposes you to International Development as a field of study. The world is said to have been globalised, internationalised or integrated in all dimensions of human life, social, economic, political technological and environment. Formally described as a global village, it has become more integrated to become a sitting room. Modernisation theory will be discussed in the next study session. 4.0 Self-Assessment Questions 1. What do you understand by International Development as a field of study? 2. What is the relevance of International Development as a field of study? 6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities) e.g. a. Visit YouTube add https://goo.gl/eUCYnFWatch the video & summarise in 1 paragraph b. View the animation on add/site https://goo.gl/Q8LZoN and critique it in the discussion forum 7.0 References/Further Readings Sheffield, J., Korotayeve, A. and Grinin, L. (2013) Globalisation: Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow, Emergent Publications. Thomas F. X. N (2013) Europe in the Middle Ages- Technology, Culture, and Trade in the Middle Ages, University of Notre Dame. 38 Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development Study Session 3 What is Modernisation Theory? Section and Subsection Headings: Introduction 1.0 Learning Outcome 2.0 Main Contents 2.1 - Marxist versus Capitalist 2.2 - Historical Context (1940s and 50s) 2.3 - Modernisation Theory 2.4 - Criticisms of Modernisation Theory 3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion 4.0 Self-Assessment Questions 5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities) 6.0 References/Further Readings Introduction: Fig. 1.3.1 Modernisation theory is a theory used to explain the process of modernisation that a nation goes through as it transitions from a traditional society to a modern one. The theory has not been attributed to any one person; instead, its development has been linked to American social scientists of the 1950s. There are many different versions of modernisation theory. In this Session, we will discuss the Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material 39 MIAD 818: Theories of International Development opposing views of the Marxist and capitalist versions, a Western version, and a present-day version of modernisation theory. Modernisation theory explains the process of modernisation within societies. Modernisation refers to a model of a progressive transition from a ‗pre-modern‘ or ‗traditional‘ to a ‗modern‘ society. Modernisation theory originated from the ideas of German sociologist, Max Weber (1864 – 1920), which provided the basis for the modernisation paradigm developed by Harvard sociologist, Talcott Parsons (1902 – 1979). The theory looks at the internal factors of a country while assuming that with assistance, ―traditional‖ countries can be brought to development in the same manner more developed countries have been. Modernisation theory was a dominant paradigm in the social sciences in the 1950s and 1960s, then went into a deep eclipse. It made a comeback after 1991 but remains a controversial model. 1.0 Study Session Learning Outcome After studying this session, I expect you to be able to: 1. Explain Modernisation Theory 2. Critique Modernisation Theory. 2.0 Main Contents 2.1 Marxist versus Capitalist Fig. 1.3.2 40 Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development Early theories were greatly affected by the political climate between the United States and the Soviet Union. During the Cold War era (1947 – 1991), two versions of modernisation theory were prominent. 2.1.1 Marxist Fig. 1.3.3 The Marxist theory of modernisation theorised that as nations develop, adopting a communist approach to governing, such as eradicating private property, would end conflict, exploitation, and inequality. Economic development and social change would lead developing nations to develop into a society much like that of the Soviet Union. 2.1.2 Capitalist The capitalist version of modernisation theorised that as nations develop, economic development and social change would lead to democracy. Many modernisation theorists of the time, such as W. W. Rostow, argued that when societies transitioned from traditional to modern, they would follow a similar path. They further theorised that each developing country could be placed into a category or stage of development. Rostow‘s stages of development are: Traditional – an agricultural-based society Preconditions for takeoff – characterised by an abundance of entrepreneurial activity Takeoff – a period of rapid economic growth Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material 41 MIAD 818: Theories of International Development Maturation – economic development slows to a more consistent rate Mass production or mass consumption – a period in which real income increases Fig. 1.3.4 Other modernisation theorists such as Samuel Huntington argued that social mobilisation and economic development were driving forces behind modernisation. Increased social mobilisation means that individuals and societal groups changed their aspirations. Increased economic development means that the capabilities of the newly modern society would change. Huntington argued that these societal changes would inevitably lead to democratisation. Although the Marxist and capitalist versions of modernisation held opposing views, both views held that in order for developing countries to modernise, the countries need assistance in economic development and social change. Communism was deteriorating by the 1970s and democratisation had failed to occur in many nations struggling to develop. Many critics declared that the Marxist and capitalist versions of modernisation were void. 42 Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development In-text Question What is Modernisation Theory? Answer Modernisation theory is a theory used to explain the process of modernisation that a nation goes through as it transits from a traditional society to a modern one. 2.2 Historical Context (1940s and 50s) By the end of WWII it had become clear that despite exposure to capitalism many of the countries of the South had failed to develop. In this context, in the late 1940s, modernisation theory was developed. Modernisation theory had two major aims: i. An attempt to explain why poorer countries have failed to develop, focusing on what cultural and economic conditions might act as ‗barriers‘ to development ii. To provide a non-communist solution to poverty in the developing world by suggesting that economic change (in the form of Capitalism) and the introduction of Western values and culture could play a key role in bringing about modernisation. Why countries are underdeveloped: Cultural and economic barriers to development Modernisation theorists argue that there are a number of cultural and economic barriers that prevent traditional societies from developing. Cultural barriers are seen as internal to the country – it is essentially their fault for being backward. Western culture, on the other hand, is seen as having a superior culture that has allowed for it to develop. Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material 43 MIAD 818: Theories of International Development Traditional Values – prevent economic growth and Modern Values change – inspire change and economic growth Simple division of labour, less specialised job roles, individuals rely Complex division of labour, individuals on a few dozen people in their local tend to have very specialised jobs and rely communities for basic needs to be on thousands of others for basic needs to met. be met. Religious beliefs and tradition Rational decision making (cost benefit influence day to day life (resistance to analysis and efficiency) are more change). important. Stronger community and family bonds Weaker community and family bonds and collectivism. means more individual freedom. Meritocracy – people are more motivated Affective relationships. to innovate and change society for the better. Patriarchy. Gender equality. Economic barriers to development These are barriers which may make developing countries unattractive to investors. Lack of infrastructure Lack of technology Lack of skills in the workforce Political instability Lack of capital in the country. 44 Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development 2.3 Modernisation Theory 2.3.1 How Countries Should Develop Rostow believes that an initial injection of aid from the West in the form of training, education, economic investment etc., would be enough to jolt a society into economic growth overcoming these cultural barriers. Rostow suggests that development should be seen as an evolutionary process in which countries progress up five stages of a development ladder. Fig. 1.3.5 Rostow’s Five Stage Model of Development Stage 1 – Traditional societies whose economies are dominated by subsistence farming. Such societies have little wealth to invest and have limited access to modern industry and technology. Rostow argues that at this stage there are cultural barriers to development. Stage 2 – The preconditions for takeoff – The stage in which Western aid packages bring Western values, practices and expertise into the society. This can take the form of: Science and technology – to improve agriculture Infrastructure – improving roads and cities communications Industry – Western companies establishing factories These provide the conditions for investment, attracting more companies into the country. Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material 45 MIAD 818: Theories of International Development Stage 3 – Takeoff – The society experiences economic growth as new/modern practices become the norm. Profits are reinvested in infrastructure etc., and a new entrepreneurial class emerges and urbanised that is willing to invest further and take risks. The country now moves beyond subsistence economy and starts exporting goods to other countries. This generates more wealth which then trickles down to the population as a whole who are then able to become consumers of new products produced by new industries there and from abroad. Stage 4 – The drive to maturity – More economic growth and investment in education, media and birth control. The population start to realise new opportunities opening up and strive to make the most of their lives. Stage 5 – The age of high mass consumption – This is where economic growth and production are at Western levels. Variations on Rostow’s five stage model Different theorists stress the importance of different types of assistance or interventions that could jolt countries out their traditional ways and bring about change. i. Hoselitz – education is most important as it should speed up the introduction of Western values such as universalism, individualism, competition and achievement measured by examinations. This was seen as a way of breaking the link between family and children. ii. Inkeles – media – Important to diffuse ideas nontraditional such as family planning and democracy iii. Hoselitz – urbanisation. The theory here is that if populations are packed more closely together, new ideas are more likely to spread than amongst diffuse rural populations. 46 Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development In-text Question What are the Rostow’s five stage model of development? Answer: The five stage model of development as presented by Rostow are: 1. Traditional societies whose economies are dominated by subsistence farming 2. The preconditions for takeoff 3. Takeoff 4. The drive to maturity and 5. The age of high mass consumption 2.4 Criticisms of Modernisation Theory 1. The Asian tiger economies combined elements of traditional culture with Western capitalism to experience some of the most rapid economic growth. 2. Ignores the ‗crisis of modernism‘ in both the developed and developing worlds. Many developed countries have huge inequalities and the greater the level of inequality the greater the degree of other problems: High crime rates, suicide rates, health problems, drug abuse. 3. Ethnocentric interpretations tend to exclude contributions from thinkers in the developing world. This is a one size fits all model, and is not culture specific. 4. The model assumes that countries need the help of outside forces. The central role is on experts and money coming in from the outside, parachuted in, and this downgrades the role of local knowledge and initiatives. This approach can be seen as demeaning and dehumanising for local populations. Galeano (1992) argues that minds become colonised with the idea that they are dependent on outside forces. They train you to be paralysed and then sell you crutches. 5. Corruption (Kleptocracy) prevents aid of any kind doing well. Much aid is siphoned by corrupt elites and government officials rather than getting to the projects it was earmarked for. This means that aid creates more inequality and enables elites to maintain power. Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material 47 MIAD 818: Theories of International Development 6. There are ecological limits to growth. Many modernisation projects such mining and forestry have led to the destruction of environment. 8. Social damage – Some development projects such as dams have led to local populations being removed forcibly from their home lands with little or no compensation being paid. 9. Some Marxist theorists argue that aid and development is not really about helping the developing world at all. It is really about changing societies just enough so they are easier to exploit, making Western companies and countries richer, opening them up to exploit cheap natural resources and cheap labour. Joseph Stiglitz notes that those countries that followed alternative models of development ignoring Western advice are now competing with the West, China and India are two examples. 3.0 Summary/Conclusion In this Study Session, you have learned modernisation theory, its argument and applicability in the study of international development. Modernisation theory explains the process of modernisation within societies. Modernisation refers to a model of a progressive transition from a ‗pre-modern‘ or ‗traditional‘ to a ‗modern‘ society. The next study session will expose you to theories of development. 4.0 Self-Assessment Questions 1. Explain the arguments of modernisation theory. 2. What are the criticisms leveled against modernisation theory? 5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities) e.g. a. Visit YouTube add https://goo.gl/M6jcWB Watch the video & summarise in 1 paragraph b. View the animation on add/site https://goo.gl/HBgeXb and critique it in the discussion forum 48 Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development 6.0 References/Further Readings Dean, C. T. (2012). Modernisation Theory and the Comparative Study of Societies: A Critical Perspective. University of California, Berkeley. Thompson, K. (2015). Modernisation Theory (Development and Underdevelopment), Global Development Theories of development. Historical Context (1940 and 50s). Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material 49 MIAD 818: Theories of International Development Study Session 4 Development Theories Section and Subsection Headings: Introduction 1.0 Learning Outcomes 2.0 Main Contents 2.1 - Dualism Theories 2.2 - Strategy Theory 2.3 - Social Psychological Theories 2.4 - External Trade Theories 2.5 - Dependency Theories 3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion 4.0 Self-Assessment Questions 5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities) 6.0 References/Further Readings Introduction: Fig. 1.4.1 Since the end of World War II, we have been experiencing a worldwide struggle for the improvement of living conditions in the so-called developing countries. At the beginning, there was little query as to the causes of underdevelopment; the 50 Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development newly independent countries as well as United Nations bodies and industrialised countries tried to promote development by applying measures like the introduction of know-how through the assignment of experts, the expansion of education, the development of infrastructure, etc., that is, they followed the example of the industrialised countries. In the course of time it became obvious that this was more or less a treatment of symptoms rather than the causes, and the gap gradually widened between the developed and less developed countries of this world. During the early period of development efforts, there was little discussion on the historical causes and the real nature of underdevelopment. Theoretical considerations at this time of Cold War explained the situation of underdevelopment and the path for development from the viewpoint of Western or socialist metropoles. Only in more recent times has the viewpoint of developing countries gained momentum in development theory. This has great practical implications: development theory offers the justification for policies. The answer to the question ―what is development?‖ determines which strategies, policies, projects, what type of industry, or what organisation of agriculture should be considered to be in line with development goals or detrimental to these. Different positions in development policy are based on differences in underlying development theories. 1. Modernisation Theories (Backwardness Theories) According to modernisation theories, internal factors in the countries such as illiteracy, traditional agrarian structure, the traditional attitude of the population, the low division of labour, the lack of communication and infrastructure, etc., are responsible for underdevelopment. Differences in structure and historical origin are considered of little importance; international dependencies are not taken into account. Consequently, a change of these endogenous factors is the strategy for development. The industrialised countries are the model for economy and society, Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material 51 MIAD 818: Theories of International Development and this model will be reached sooner or later. There is a continuum between the least and the most developed country and each country has its position on this line. The difference as compared to the industrialised countries is the degree of backwardness which has to be made up for. Suitable measures are the modernisation of the production apparatus, capital aid, transfer of know-how, so that the developing countries can reach the stage of industrialised countries as soon as possible. Development is seen as an increase of production and efficiency and measured primarily by comparing the per capita income. 1.0 Study Session Learning Outcome After studying this Session, I expect you to be able to: 1. Explain modernisation theories 2. Compare/contrast modernisation theories. 2.0 Main Contents 2.1 Dualism Theories Mode of production with a high division of labour. Fig. 1.4.2 The two sectors have little relation and interdependence and develop each according to its own pattern. The modern sector can be considered an economic enclave of industrial countries, and its multiplication and growth effects will benefit the industrial countries but have little effect on the internal market. 52 Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development Several authors have stressed the dualism of specific factors. Eckhaus (1955) for instance, differentiates, in his concept of technological dualism, between labour and capital-intensive sectors. Gannage (1962) explains regional dualism as a lack of communications and exchange between regions, the capital sometimes being an island which, in geographical terms, belongs to the developing country, in economic terms, however, to the industrialised country. Economic, technological, and regional dualism are often the consequence of a social dualism, the absence of relationships between people of different race, religion, and language, which, in many cases, is a legacy of colonialism. Development in dualism concepts is the suppression of the traditional sector by concentrating on and expanding the modern sector. In time, it is assumed that the trickle down effects will reduce and abolish dualism. In this line of thinking, the main problem is capital formation because its degree determines the scope and speed of expansion of the modern sector. In general, agriculture has to provide the resources, labour, as well as capital, for expanding the modern sector. In details, the strategies vary. Some authors, like Lewis (1965) and FEI/RANIS (1964) assume that a reduction of the labour force in agriculture, because of the widespread disguised unemployment, would not reduce agricultural production. The productive employment of these labourers in the modern sector would increase the total production of the economy and hence priority of investment in industry is necessary. Concentration on the modern sector led to an increasing regional disparity, rural urban migration, urban unemployment, a decrease in agricultural production, and hindrance in industrial development because of a lack of purchasing power in the rural areas. The anticipated trickle-down effects hardly ever happened. In praxis, development plans following this line of thinking led to failures like the early Indian development planning. Therefore, other authors like Jorgenson (1966), Lele (1971) and Mellor (1976) emphasise the important role of agriculture at the beginning of development, that is, preceding or parallel to industrial development in order to provide enough internal resources for the development process. Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material 53 MIAD 818: Theories of International Development In-text Question What is dualism theory Answer: Dualism theories assume a split of economic and social structures of different sectors so that they differ in organisation, level of development, and goal structures. Usually, the concept of economic dualism (BOEKE 1) differentiates between two sectors of economy 2.2 Strategy Theory Fig. 1.4.3 Underdevelopment from the viewpoint of these theories is the result of vicious circles of factors. One example is based on the fact of low real income in developing countries which is the result of low labour productivity. This low labour productivity, in turn, is a consequence of capital shortage which is a result of the population‘s low saving ability. As the saving rate is determined by the low real income, the circle is closed. Strategy theories intend to break up this cycle at a certain point which they consider critical and which varies according to the different theories. Thus, they 54 Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development want to initiate development and transform traditional subsistence economy into a modern market economy. Their main emphasis is on capital formation and investment (investment theories) and, by and large, they prescribe action for overcoming underdevelopment while they contribute little towards explaining the causes of underdevelopment. 2.2.1 Theory of Balanced Growth This theory sees the main obstacles to development in the narrow market and, thus, in the limited market opportunities. Under these circumstances, only a bundle of complementary investments realised at the same time has the chance of creating mutual demand. The theory refers to Say‘s theorem and requests investments in such sectors which have a high relation between supply, purchasing power, and demand as in consumer goods, industry, food production and so on. Fig. 1.4.4 The real bottleneck in breaking the narrow market is seen here in the shortage of capital, and, therefore, all potential sources have to be mobilised. If capital is available, investments will be made. However, in order to ensure the balanced growth, there is a need for investment planning by the governments. Development is seen here as expansion of market and an increase of production including agriculture. The possibility of structural hindrances is not included in the line of thinking, as are market dependencies. The emphasis is on capital investment, not on the ways and means of achieving capital formation. It is Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material 55 MIAD 818: Theories of International Development assumed that, in a traditional society, there is ability and willingness for rational investment decisions along the requirements of the theory. As this will most likely be limited to small sectors of the society, it is not unlikely that this approach will lead to super-imposing a modern sector on the traditional economy, that is, to economic dualism (Nurske, 1963). In-text Question 1 Explain the Theory of Balanced Growth Answer This theory sees the main obstacles to development in the narrow market and, thus, in the limited market opportunities. Under these circumstances, only a bundle of complementary investments realised at the same time has the chance of creating mutual demand. 2.2.2 Theory of Unbalanced Growth Fig. 1.4.5 Contrary to the theory of balanced growth, in Hirschman's opinion, the real bottleneck is not the shortage of capital, but lack of entrepreneurial abilities. Potential entrepreneurs are hindered in their decision-making by institutional factors: either group considerations play a great role and hinder the potential entrepreneur, or entrepreneurs aim at personal gains at the cost of others and are thus equally detrimental to development. In view of the lack of enterpreneurial abilities there is a need for a mechanism of incentive and pressure which will automatically result in the required decisions. According to Hirschman, not a 56 Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development balanced growth should be aimed at, but rather existing imbalances – whose symptoms are profit and losses – must be maintained. Investments should not be spread evenly but concentrated in such projects in which they cause additional investments because of their backward and forward linkages without being too demanding on entrepreneurial abilities. Manufacturing industries and import substitutions are relevant examples. These first investments initiate further investments which are made by less qualified entrepreneurs. Thus, the strategy overcomes the bottleneck of entrepreneurial ability. The theory gives no hints as to how the attitude of entrepreneurs and their institutional influence will be changed in time (Hirschman, 1958). 2.2.3 Theory of Stages of Growth This theory tries to explain the long-term processes of economic development from the point of view of economic history by describing five ideal types of stages through which all societies pass: Fig. 1.4.6 The ‗traditional society‘ has more than 75% of the population engaged in food production, and political power is in the hands of landowners or of a central authority supported by the army and the civil servants. Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material 57 MIAD 818: Theories of International Development The ‗transitional stage‘ creates the preconditions for takeoff by bringing about radical changes in the non-industrial sectors. Export of raw material gains momentum; a new class of businessmen emerges; and the idea of economic progress coming from outside spreads through the elite. The ‗takeoff stage‘ brings a sharp increase in the rate of investment in the per capita output. This stage of industrial revolution is accompanied by radical changes in the production techniques. Expansion takes place in a small group of leading sectors at first and, on the social side, is accompanied by the domination of the modern section of society over the traditional one. The ‗drive to maturity‘ brings a spread of growth from the leading to the other sectors and a broader application of modern technology followed by necessary changes in the society at large. The ‗stage of high mass consumption‘ can be reached after attaining a certain level of national income and formulating an economic policy giving priority to increased private consumption. The critical phase for development is the ‗takeoff stage‘ during which net investment rates have to increase from 5 to 10 percent of the national product and during which the political, social, and institutional framework has to be built in order to reach a situation of self-sustained growth. The financial resources must be accumulated internally by higher saving rates. Income distribution favouring classes and strata which are willing and able to use capital more productively than others has the same effect. While this theory became widely known, perhaps because of its author‘s political post and the fact that it is a counter-position to Marxian approaches, this ―time- table of development‖ does little to explain why some societies go ahead on this ladder and others not. As well, its value for forecasting the results of development activities is limited. The rather fixed stages hardly allow for alternative goals and 58 Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development processes of development and incorporate a high degree of ethnocentrism (Rostow, 1960). 2.2.4 ‘Big-Push’ Theory This theory is an investment theory which stresses the conditions of takeoff. The argumentation is quite similar to the balanced growth theory but emphasis is put on the need for a big push. The investments should be of a relatively high minimum in order to reap the benefits of external economies. Only investments in big complexes will result in social benefits exceeding social costs. High priority is given to infrastructural development and industry, and this emphasis will lead to governmental development planning and influence (Rosenstein-Rodan, 1970). Fig. 1.4.7 2.2.5 Theory of Development Poles Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material 59 MIAD 818: Theories of International Development The promotion of regional development centres will serve as focal point and incentive for further development. Such a regional concentration helps to reap the benefits of technological external economies and makes the growth centre attractive to entrepreneurs, thus initiating further development. This theory is a sort of ‗regional unbalanced growth theory‘ which uses temporary regional imbalances to initiate development. Little attention is given to the process which is necessary to ensure a spread or linkage from the centres to the hinterland without which the poles may transform the economy of the region into a dual economy (Rerroux, 1957). 2.2.6 Myrdal Argument on Theory of Development Myrdal opposes the strategy of development poles because social systems and economic processes do not develop towards an equilibrium but, on the contrary, factors tend to cumulate to positive or negative cycles. Under laissez faire‘s conditions in developing countries, there is a tendency towards a negative cumulation. In principle, Myrdal‘s theory is a negation of the monocausal explanation of problems of developing countries by economic factors alone. Rather, in a comprehensive way, all social relations have to be incorporated. At national level – different stages of development between regions – as well as international level – trade between industrialised and developing countries – differences tend to increase because of the spread effects in the more developed areas and modern sectors and backwash effects in backward areas and traditional sectors. For instance, industrial import goods are in competition with traditional crafts; terms of trade deteriorate; capital is being transferred, etc. The direction of processes depends on the initial situation and the factors causing the change. Under the conditions in developing countries, increased regional dualism often is a consequence of such processes of circular causation (Myrdal, 1957). In-text Question What does Theory of Development Poles suggests? Answer 60 Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material MIAD 818: Theories of International Development The promotion of regional development centres will serve as focal point and incentive for further development. Such a regional concentration helps to reap the benefits of technological external economies and makes the growth centre attractive to entrepreneurs, thus initiating further development. 2.3 Social Psychological Theories Fig. 1.4.8 In the dualism and (economic) strategy theories discussed so far, underdevelopment and development are explained by economic factors alone while individual or group values and motivations are neglected. The social-psychological theories consider these very factors as main determinants of underdevelopment and development. Thus, they add a new component to the discussion. Because they reduce the causes to aspects of one discipline, like economic theories, they are partial explanations as well. 2.3.1 Sociological Explanation of Socioeconomic Change Distance Learning Centre ABU, Course Material 61
