Memory and Emotion PDF

Memory The Nature of Memory Biological Bases of Memory Forgetting Memory Distortions The Nature of Memory ‘Memory’ is defined as: an internal record or representation of prior events and experiences Memory allows us to learn from our past and to adapt to the requiremen...

Memory The Nature of Memory Biological Bases of Memory Forgetting Memory Distortions The Nature of Memory ‘Memory’ is defined as: an internal record or representation of prior events and experiences Memory allows us to learn from our past and to adapt to the requirements of our ever-changing environment Without memory we would not be able to benefit from past experiences or to apply our skills to new situations Our memories are selective and open to biases; rather than being an accurate record, memory is a reconstructive or re-creative process Information-Processing Model According to the information- processing model it is thought that the brain: 1. Encodes sensory information (such as sounds and visual images) into a neural code that it can understand 2. This information is stored, much as it might on a memory disc or file 3. Such information is then retrieved when we need it, i.e. by searching back into the appropriate file or memory store As your text points out, these key operations are similar to typing incoming information on a keyboard (encoding), then storing it on a memory stick (storage), and then bringing it on to the computer screen for viewing (retrieval)  Two major types of long-term memory.... Long-term memory (LTM) is divided and subdivided into a number of types ‘Explicit/declarative’ memory consciously stores information, facts, and life experiences ‘Explicit/declarative’ memory can be subdivided into: 1. Episodic memory is like a mental journal or record for personal life experiences 2. Semantic memory organizes words, ideas, general knowledge, rules, public events, etc... It is like a ‘mental encyclopaedia’ Most of us cannot remember much that occurred prior to age 3 years; the frontal lobes and other neural structures need to mature before they can process much information into the memory stores  Implicit/non-declarative memory.... ‘Implicit/non-declarative’ memory is the subsystem within LTM devoted to non-conscious procedural skills, simple classically conditioned responses, and to priming Procedural motor skills include things like tying shoelaces, riding a bike, skateboarding, etc Classically conditioned memory includes fears, phobias, taste aversions, etc Priming refers to the effects of prior exposure to a stimulus – that either facilitates or inhibits new information processing Memory Distortions We have learned that we categorize, organize and ‘chunk’ information in order to store it in memory.... In this process we may also modify or shape memories according to prior experience (or biases).... We may also distort and even change information in order to create logic and consistency in our memories We also shape and construct our memories for the sake of increased efficiency In a similar way, when we retrieve memories from LTM, we can make ‘errors’ by forgetting things we consider unimportant or by misremembering details Eyewitness testimony.... When memory errors involve the criminal justice system they can lead to wrongful judgments Problems with selective memory and forgetting are so well established that judges now allow expert testimony on problems with eyewitness testimony In a classic study a psychologist dressed as a gorilla walked onto centre court during a basketball game and thumped his chest More than 50% of those watching the game could not remember having witnessed this incident.... their attention (and memory) were focused exclusively on the game itself Repressed memories.... ‘Repression’ is one of Freud’s unconscious coping strategies that prevents stressful memories from reaching our full awareness This theory also fits research studies that supports the likelihood that painful thoughts are actively/consciously forgotten As an example, many psychotherapists claim that they assist their patients in retrieving repressed memories of childhood sexual abuse.... Other psychologists argue that those who witness violent crimes or those who are victims of sexual abuse........ have trouble coming to terms and forgetting that such events happened (versus the opposite)  Motivation and Emotion  Understanding Motivation  Motivated Behaviours  Theories and Concepts of Emotion Early ideas about motivation ‘Motivation’ can be described as an internal state that tends to (1) activate, (2) direct, and (3) maintain human behaviour This behaviour is either directed toward the achievement of some goal, or moves us away from an unfavourable situation Two early theories of motivation emphasized the biological basis for behaviour William McDougall (1908) argued for inborn instincts, e.g. repulsion, curiosity, assertiveness By the 1920s scientists had compiled a list of up to 10,000 human instincts (Bernard, 1924) Motivation is complex.... The drive reduction theory became less popular as it was recognized that human behaviours are complex and multi-layered in their motivation That is, many behaviours are influenced by other than biological needs.... And some needs do not end when they are satisfied.... For example, we eat when we are not hungry and may seek out activities that have more to do with curiosity or intellectual stimulation Studies have demonstrated that humans (and other animals) require environmental stimulation in the form of (1) novelty and (2) complexity For example, infants prefer to engage with complex (vs. simple) visual stimuli Social and cognitive needs Instinct and drive-reduction theories have been useful in explaining certain aspects of human motivation – but not others According to cognitive theory, human motivation is directly influenced by the attributions we make ‘Attribution’ refers to how we interpret or think about our own and others’ behaviours For example, people who attribute their success to personal ability and effort (‘internal locus of control’) tend to work harder to achieve their goals Cognition and emotion It is our thoughts that trigger or initiate related emotions.... cognitions determine the type and intensity of what we feel.... Because of this, the range of emotional reactions to an event will vary on an individual basis An event that Jane finds exciting and enjoyable may be experienced as boring or annoying to Jim Cognitions are difficult to measure scientifically; psychologists often use self-report questionnaires and measurements Many researchers supplement self-report with more direct methods.... like measuring physiological responses or observing behaviour Universal emotions? Some researchers argue that there are 7 to 10 primary emotions that are expressed in the same way across countries and cultures.... ‘Other’ emotions are seen as combinations of the various primary emotions This theory also considers that people in all cultures recognize or interpret these emotions in essentially the same way An example is Robert Plutchik’s system: – Fear, anger, disgust, surprise, sadness, anticipation, and acceptance are seen as primary emotions – Another example is that of Ekman & Friesen: fear, anger, disgust, surprise, happiness, contempt, and sadness  Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations Some psychologists have expressed their concern that by encouraging external motivations there will be a corresponding decline in intrinsic motivation ‘Extrinsic motivation’ is that motivation based on obvious external rewards (or the threat of punishment) Hence, some individuals may choose their work or occupation according to the amount of pay, vacation, and other ‘rewards’ (extrinsic) While others are motivated by their level of interest, dedication to humanity, and feelings of personal satisfaction (intrinsic) Studies have shown that when extrinsic rewards (money, praise, etc) are given for intrinsically satisfying activities (hobbies, recreation, etc).... People then lose the enjoyment and interest (intrinsic satisfactions) attached to such activities An example is a study that demonstrated reduced intrinsic motivation in children whose parents provided money or privileges for good grades