Exam 3 Cognition Review PDF

Everyday Memory (Chapter 8) Autobiographical memory Autobiographical memory is the memory system that handles remembering personal events and experiences. This type of memory is unique to each individual and is often influenced by our personal beliefs, values, and emotions. It's what allows us to r...

Everyday Memory (Chapter 8) Autobiographical memory Autobiographical memory is the memory system that handles remembering personal events and experiences. This type of memory is unique to each individual and is often influenced by our personal beliefs, values, and emotions. It's what allows us to remember our past experiences, like our first day of school or a recent vacation. It's a complex process that involves several different cognitive functions, including: Encoding: The process of taking in new information and storing it in memory. Storage: The process of keeping information in memory over time. Retrieval: The process of bringing information back from memory. Autobiographical memory is important for a variety of reasons. It helps us to: Understand ourselves: By remembering our past experiences, we can learn about our values, beliefs, and motivations. Make decisions: We can use our memories to help us make decisions about the future. Connect with others: Sharing our memories with others can help us to build relationships and connect with people on a deeper level. Create a sense of self: Autobiographical memory helps us to develop a sense of who we are and what our place is in the world. Transition points Transition points are moments in time when our memories shift from one stage of life to another. These are significant periods of change that often mark distinct phases in our development. Think of them as dividing lines between different chapters of your life. For example: Childhood to Adolescence: This point could be marked by starting high school, becoming more independent, or developing new social relationships. Adolescence to Adulthood: This transition may involve graduating from college, starting a career, or getting married. Early Adulthood to Midlife: This transition might be marked by having children, experiencing significant career changes, or facing health challenges. Reminiscence Bump The reminiscence bump is a phenomenon in memory where people tend to have a better memory for events that happened during their adolescence and young adulthood (ages 15-25). Although this period is not as distant as childhood or old age, people recall more memories from this era compared to other times in their lives. Self-image Theory This theory suggests that we remember events better from that period because it's a time when we are forming our sense of self. We are actively defining our identities, exploring who we are, and establishing our place in the world. Therefore, according to this theory, the events that we experience during this formative period become particularly significant and memorable because they contribute to our self-identity. They shape our beliefs, values, and aspirations - making them crucial elements of our personal narrative. Cognitive Theory Cognitive theory explains the reminiscence bump by suggesting that the brain is better at storing and retrieving memories during adolescence and young adulthood because it's developing its full capacity for memory processing. Cultural Life Script Theory The Cultural Life Script Theory suggests that our memories are influenced by the expected events and milestones that are typical of our culture. It's like a script that outlines the "normal" stages of life - from graduating high school to getting married, starting a career, having children, etc. Role of emotion in memory The role of emotion in memory is significant. Our emotions can influence how we encode, store, and retrieve information. Helps people remember things more. Here's how: Emotional events are more memorable: We often remember emotional events more vividly than neutral ones. This is because our brains release hormones like adrenaline and cortisol during emotional arousal. These hormones help to strengthen the neural connections involved in memory formation. Flashbulb memories: These are vivid, detailed memories of significant and emotionally charged events. Think of 9/11 or the death of a loved one; these memories feel like a snapshot in time. They are not always accurate but are very impactful and often have strong emotional ties. Emotional state during encoding: Our emotional state at the time of encoding or storing memory can affect how we remember the event. Think of learning something when happy or learning when stressed. The emotion associated with the event is encoded with that memory. Mood-congruent memory: We tend to recall information that is congruent with our current mood. This is because when we retrieve information, our brains activate emotional networks associated with memory. Despite the power of emotions in shaping our memory, they are not perfect. Emotional memories can also be distorted or inaccurate, especially if the emotions were particularly strong Flashbulb memories- more confident, not more accurate Flashbulb memories are vivid, detailed memories of significant and emotionally charged events. They feel as if they are "frozen in time," like a photograph, due to the intense emotions associated with them. However, while people are incredibly confident in their flashbulb memories, research has indicated that these memories are not always accurate. They may contain inaccuracies or even be entirely fabricated. Constructive nature of memory The constructive nature of memory means that our memories are not simply passive recordings of past events. Instead, they are actively constructed and reconstructed each time we recall them. WE REMEMBER THE GIST This involves: Filling in gaps: Our brains often fill in missing information during recall based on our existing knowledge, expectations, and beliefs. This can lead to inaccuracies in our memories. Integrating information: We integrate new information with our existing memories, which can sometimes lead to distortion or blurring of the original event. Influenced by emotions: Emotions can shape how we remember events, often emphasizing certain details while downplaying others. Affected by schemas: Schemas are mental frameworks or mental models that we use to organize and make sense of information. Our schemas can influence how we interpret events and, consequently, the memories we form. Source Monitoring Source monitoring is the process of determining the origin of our memories. When we retrieve a memory, we must decide where it came from. Did it come from a real event, or did we imagine it, dream it, or read about it? Cryptomnesia Cryptomnesia is the unconscious plagiarism of someone else's work. It's like when someone believes they have a new idea, but it’s something they have encountered before and subconsciously remembered. This often happens with creative works like music, writing, or art. Schemas and scripts Schemas and scripts are mental frameworks that help us organize and interpret information about the world around us. Schemas are general knowledge structures that represent our understanding of concepts, objects, events, and situations. For example, we have a schema for what a "restaurant" is, including seating arrangements, menus, servers, and typical actions that occur within a restaurant. Scripts are like schemas but focus on a specific sequence of events that typically occur in a given situation. For example, we have a script for going to a movie, which includes buying a ticket, getting popcorn, finding a seat, and watching the film. Retroactive interference Retroactive interference is when new information interferes with the recall of previously learned information. EX: Studying for exams: If you study for two different subjects on the same day, the information from the second subject can make it more difficult to remember the information from the first subject. Misleading post-event information Misleading post-event information refers to the phenomenon where information presented after an event can alter or distort a person's memory of that event. This is closely related to the concept of "false memory." False memories False memories are memories of events that did not actually happen. These memories can be very vivid and detailed, and the person may believe them to be true, even though they are not. How False Memories Form: Suggestion: Sometimes people can be persuaded to believe that something happened, even if it didn't. This often happens through repeated questioning or exposure to misleading information. Imagination: Imagining an event can increase the likelihood of later believing it happened. Cognitive Biases: People may have inaccurate memories due to how their brains process information and tend to fill in gaps in their memories. Knowledge Chapter 9 Definitional approach The definitional approach to categorization is a way of grouping things together based on whether they meet a specific set of criteria or definition. For example, a "bird" is defined as an animal with feathers, wings, a beak, and the ability to lay eggs. Any creature meeting these criteria would be classified as a bird, regardless of other characteristics. Prototype approach The prototype approach to categorization is based on the idea that we have an idealized "best example" of a category in our mind, called a prototype. When we encounter a new item, we compare it to our mental prototype, and if it's similar enough, we categorize it accordingly. Think of a "bird." You might have a mental prototype that includes characteristics like a small size, feathers, wings, and the ability to fly. Even though some birds don't perfectly match this prototype (like penguins who don't fly), we still categorize them as birds because they are similar enough to our mental image. Exemplar approach The exemplar approach is a method of categorization where we compare new items to a collection of specific examples (exemplars) we have stored in memory. It's like having a mental library of things we've encountered in the past that we can reference. Imagine seeing a new type of dog. Instead of comparing it to a perfect prototype, we might compare it to all the different dogs we've seen before. This comparison helps us decide whether it fits into the broader category of “dog,” even if it doesn’t resemble a typical golden retriever or German Shepherd. Why are categories important? Categories are important because they help us: Make sense of the world: They provide a way to organize the vast amount of information we encounter every day so we can understand and make decisions. By grouping items together, we can process information more efficiently. Make predictions: Once we categorize something, we can use our knowledge of that category to make predictions about its properties and behaviors. For example, if we see a new type of fruit, we might assume it's edible because fruits are typically edible. Communicate effectively: Categories are essential for communication, as they provide a shared understanding of the world. We can use categories to express our thoughts and ideas clearly and efficiently. Hierarchy of categorization The hierarchy of categorization describes the way categories are organized into a nested structure, with broader categories encompassing narrower ones. Here's an example: Super-ordinate Level: The broadest level (most general level), encompassing many sub- categories. Example: "Furniture" Basic Level: The most used and intuitive level of categorization. Example: "Chair" Subordinate Level: The most specific level, with more detailed categories. Example: "Armchair" Individual The individual level of categorization refers to the most specific category possible – it’s the level where we're talking about unique, individual items. For example, instead of “chair”, we'd talk about "that red leather chair with the floral pattern." Role of experience in categorization Our experiences play a crucial role in shaping our understanding of categories by: Forming Prototypes: As we encounter new items, our experiences influence our mental prototypes, which are the ideal examples of a category we have in mind. The more we encounter a particular item, the more it becomes cemented in our prototype for a category. Building Exemplar Libraries: Our experiences help us build a mental library of specific examples (exemplars) that we use to compare new items. With more diverse experiences, we have a richer set of exemplars to draw on. Fine-tuning Category Boundaries: Our experiences help us refine the boundaries of categories. As we learn more about the variations within a category, we become better at recognizing nuances and making more nuanced distinctions. Semantic Networks Semantic networks are a way of representing knowledge in a way that shows the relationships between different concepts. Like a web, they connect concepts in a network of related ideas. Imagine a network of nodes (circles) representing words, and connecting lines (arcs) showing the relationships between the nodes. For example, "dog" might be connected to "animal," "mammal," "furry," "bark," "tail," "leash," etc. Nodes In semantic networks, a node is a circle that represents a concept, word, or idea. Think of it like a central hub of meaning. Cognitive economy Cognitive economy is the idea that our brains are designed to be efficient and use as little energy as possible. This is why we use categories and schemas to make sense of the world - they help us make quick judgments and decisions without having to process every single piece of information. EX: Imagine you see a furry, four-legged animal with a tail wagging. You quickly categorize this animal as a "dog" because you already have a schema for dogs in your mind. You don't need to analyze every detail of the animal to understand that it's a dog. This saves you cognitive energy and allows you to react quickly to the situation. Lexical decision task A lexical decision task is a psychological test used to study how people process language. Participants are presented with a string of letters and must decide as quickly as possible whether the string is a real word or a non-word. For example, participants might see the words "cat" and "table" and the non-words "flib" and "glop". The time it takes for participants to decide whether each string is a real word, or a non- word can provide insights into how people process language. Spreading activation Spreading activation is a theory that explains how we retrieve information from our memory. It suggests that when we think of a concept, it activates related concepts in our minds. For example, if you think of the word "apple", it might activate related concepts like "fruit", "red", "sweet", and "tree". These activated concepts can then trigger other related concepts, leading to a chain reaction of activation. Language Chapter 11 (mostly not from the book) Classical vs behaviorist vs cognitive view of language Classical view: Language learning is about memorizing grammar rules and associating words with their meanings. Behaviorist view: Language is learned through reinforcement and imitation. (Think of Skinner and Operant Conditioning) Cognitive view: Language is a complex process of mental representations and the interaction of these representations with our cognitive processes. (Focus on the mind!) Generative aspect of language The generative aspect of language refers to our ability to create and understand an infinite number of sentences using a finite set of rules and words. We can combine words in new ways to express new ideas, even if we've never heard those exact combinations before. Dynamic aspect of language Perception and production of language Levels of analysis: This section discusses how we perceive and produce language, and breaks down the analysis into different levels. These levels of analysis help us understand how language works from the smallest unit of sound (phoneme) to the larger meaning of a conversation (discourse).  It's like looking at a car - you can focus on the engine, wheels, or the overall design. Each level provides a different perspective on the language system. Phoneme k A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language that can distinguish one word from another. For example, the words "cat" and "bat" differ by only one phoneme: /k/ vs /b/. The phoneme /k/ is made by placing the back of your tongue against the roof of your mouth and releasing air. Morpheme A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in a language. It's like a building block for words. Free morphemes: can stand alone as a word, like "cat" or "run". Bound morphemes: must be attached to another morpheme to have meaning. Common examples are prefixes and suffixes, like "-ing" and "-ed". For example, the word "running" has two morphemes: "run" (free morpheme) and "-ing" (bound morpheme). Words Phrases Sentences Discourse Discourse is a broad term that refers to any instance of language use, including conversations, speeches, written texts, and even non-verbal communication like gestures and facial expressions. It's the way we use language to communicate meaning in a particular context, often considering the broader picture, such as the relationship between speakers, the social setting, and the overall purpose of communication. BIG PICTURE OF COMMUNICATION What makes human speech perception unique? Categorical perception vs continuous perception Human speech perception is unique because it uses categorical perception instead of continuous perception. This means we perceive sounds in distinct categories rather than as a continuous spectrum of variation. Categorical perception means that we perceive small differences within a category (e.g., between different pronunciations of the same phoneme) as the same sound. Continuous perception means that we perceive all variations in a sound as distinct differences, even slight ones. Why isn’t language a stream of phonemes? Language isn't just a stream of phonemes because of coarticulation. This means that sounds are influenced by the sounds that come before and after them. Imagine saying the phrase "the cat." The "t" sound in "cat" is slightly different depending on whether it's followed by a vowel or consonant. Coarticulation makes speech more efficient, but it also makes it more complex than just a simple sequence of phonemes. Coarticulation Coarticulation means that sounds in speech are not produced in isolation. They are influenced by the sounds that come before and after them. This makes speech more fluid and efficient, but it also makes it more complex than just a simple string of phonemes. Dialects and phonemes Dialects and phonemes are related in that dialects often have different sets of phonemes. Dialects are variations of a language spoken by different groups of people. Phonemes are the basic units of sound in a language. McGurk Effect The McGurk Effect is a fascinating phenomenon that demonstrates how visual information can influence our perception of speech sounds. Here's how it works: You are presented with a video of a person speaking, but the audio track is different from the mouth movements of the speaker. For example, the audio might say "ba," but the speaker’s mouth movements might be for "ga." The effect is that you perceive a different sound, often something like "da." This shows how our brain combines both visual and auditory information to create our perception of speech. It highlights the fact that speech perception is not just about listening to sounds, but also about interpreting visual cues. Phonemic restoration effect The phonemic restoration effect is kind of like a "fill-in-the-blanks" for speech sounds. Here's how it works: You listen to a word or phrase that has a sound removed or replaced with noise. Your brain, however, "fills in" the missing sound based on the context of the surrounding sounds and the meaning of the phrase. For example, if you hear "the *eel is on the orange," but the "s" sound is replaced with noise, you’re likely to still hear "the eel is on the orange." Your brain uses the context of the surrounding words to reconstruct the missing "s" sound. Hierarchical models Hierarchical models are used to understand the structure of syntax and grammar. They organize language elements in a hierarchy, with higher levels depending on lower ones. Imagine a pyramid where the base is the phoneme level, and the levels progress upwards to words, phrases, sentences, and discourse. This model reflects how language is processed and understood. Syntax and grammar Syntax refers to the rules governing how words combine into phrases and sentences. It's the structure of language. Grammar is broader, encompassing both syntax and morphology. It involves the rules for constructing and understanding language. Think of syntax as the blueprint for building a sentence, while grammar is the entire set of instructions for using the language correctly. Word-chain grammar This is a specific grammatical theory. In word chain grammar, each word in a sentence is determined by the preceding word. It's a simplistic view of language that doesn't account for the complex relationships between words and their structural dependencies. For example, it can't explain why "The cat sat on the mat" is grammatical, but "The mat sat on the cat" isn't. More sophisticated models, like Chomksy’s ideas, are needed to capture the nuances of natural language. Chomsky’s colorless green ideas sleep furiously- never heard before This is a famous example used by Noam Chomsky to illustrate a key point about language. It demonstrates that sentences can be grammatically correct but still meaningless. The sentence follows the rules of English syntax, yet it conveys no real meaning. It highlights the difference between grammaticality and meaningfulness in language. Surface vs Deep structure Surface Structure: This is the actual arrangement of words in a sentence as we hear or read it. It's the "surface" level of representation within the sentence. Deep Structure: This is the underlying meaning of a sentence, independent of its surface form. It represents the core semantic relationships between words. For example, consider these sentences: "The dog chased the cat." " The cat was chased by the dog." They have different surface structures, but they have the same deep structure, indicating the same underlying semantic relationship: the dog performed the action of chasing the cat. Language Acquisition Device This is a theoretical concept proposed by Noam Chomsky. It suggests that humans are born with an innate ability to learn and understand language. This innate capacity is referred to as the Language Acquisition Device (LAD). It's a hypothetical mental module that allows babies to quickly and effortlessly acquire the complex rules of their native language. Specialized language production This refers to the unique ways people produce language in specific situations or for specific purposes. For example, a scientist might speak differently during a research presentation compared to a casual social interaction. It also includes specialized forms of language like legal jargon or medical terminology. “Spiders spin spider webs because they have spider brains” Pinker This is a quote attributed to the linguist Steven Pinker. It's meant to illustrate a common error in reasoning called "circular reasoning." The statement claims that spiders spin webs because they have "spider brains," implying that their brain structure is the sole cause of their web-spinning behavior. However, this reasoning is circular because it simply restates the obvious relationship without providing any real explanation. It's like saying "birds fly because they have bird wings" – it's true, but it doesn't explain the underlying why of their ability. Critical periods Critical periods refer to specific time windows in a person's development when they are particularly sensitive to learning specific skills or acquiring knowledge. For language development, the critical period concept suggests that there's a window during early childhood when the brain is most receptive to learning languages. After this period, it becomes more difficult to acquire a native-like fluency in a new language. Think of it like a gardener planting seed – during the optimal season, the seeds grow best. Stages of speech production: Cooing: (Early Stage) This is the stage characterized by vowel-like sounds and gentle sounds. This happens within the first few months of life. Babbling: (Early Stage) This is when a baby starts making consonant-vowel combinations, often repeating sounds like "ba-ba-ba" or "ma-ma-ma." Typically begins around 4-6 months of age. One-word utterances: (First Words) The baby begins to produce single words with meaning, like "mama," "dada," or "milk." This usually appears between 10-18 months. Two-word utterances: (Early sentences) The child begins to combine two words to form simple phrases like "want milk," "more juice," or "go park." This stage typically begins around 18-24 months. Basic adult sentence structure: (Later Stages) This is when children start to produce more complex sentences with correct grammatical structure, following the rules of their language. They begin to use plurals, verbs in the past tense, and more complex sentence structures. This phase progresses with age and exposure to language. Phoneme specialization at babbling stage This refers to a key development in the babbling stage. During this period, babies' babbling starts to reflect the specific sounds (phonemes) of their native language. They begin to distinguish and produce the sounds that are relevant to their language, while dropping or reducing sounds that are not used in their language. It's like the baby's brain is starting to "tune" its sound system to match the language spoken around them. Over generalization This refers to a common error children make when learning grammar. It occurs when a child incorrectly applies a grammatical rule to situations where it doesn't apply. For example, a child might say "goed" instead of "went" because they are overgeneralizing the rule for forming past tense verbs by adding "-ed" to the end. It's a natural part of the language learning process as children figure out the complexities of grammar. Perception before production This concept suggests that a child's ability to understand language (perception) develops before their ability to produce language (production). This means that a child can comprehend what is being said to them, even if they can't yet speak the language fluently. This is why they might understand simple instructions before they can speak complete sentences. Wug study The Wug test is a classic experiment in linguistics. It's designed to investigate children's understanding of grammatical rules, particularly their knowledge of morphemes (the smallest meaningful units of language). The test uses a made-up word and asks children to apply grammatical rules to it, like forming the plural or past tense. For example, they might show a child a picture of a creature called a "wug" and then ask them to say what two of these creatures are called. A child who understands the plural rules of English will say "wugs." The Wug test provides evidence of children's implicit knowledge of language rules, even for made-up words. Bilingualism- Single vs dual system hypothesis Pidgins and creoles This section discusses different theories on how bilingual brains process language. Single System Hypothesis: This view proposes that bilinguals have a single language system in their brains, where both languages are integrated and processed together. Dual System Hypothesis: This alternative view suggests that bilinguals have two separate language systems in their brains, with distinct representations for each language. Pidgins and Creoles: Pidgins: These are simplified languages that develop when speakers of different languages need to communicate. They have limited vocabulary and grammar, often borrowing features from the contributing languages.  Creoles: These are more complex languages that arise when a pidgin language becomes the native language of a community. They develop their own grammar and vocabulary, becoming more fully fledged languages. Children generating language: ISN- Nicaraguan school children: This refers to a unique study of sign language development among deaf children in Nicaragua. They developed their own sign language spontaneously, showing how language can emerge when there is a need for communication, even in an absence of pre-existing language models. Simon: This refers to a specific study or case of a child learning language. It might be a case where a child deviated from the typical acquisition patterns or displayed exceptional language abilities. Simon was deaf and did his own version of American sign language since parents did not teach nor know the language. Language and intelligence as dissociable This phrase refers to the idea that language and intelligence are distinct cognitive abilities. They are not necessarily dependent on each other. This means a person can be intelligent without being particularly good at language, and vice versa. Neuropsychology- verbal vs non-verbal IQ Neuropsychology is the study of the brain and its relation to behavior and cognition. Verbal IQ measures a person's ability to understand and use language. It assesses skills like reading, vocabulary, and verbal reasoning. Non-Verbal IQ focuses on cognitive abilities that are not directly related to language. It might test spatial reasoning, problem-solving, pattern recognition, or visual-motor coordination. Double dissociation in language and intelligence "Double dissociation" is used in neuropsychology to explore the relationship between two cognitive functions. In this case, it refers to situations where: One group of people shows a deficit in language ability but normal intelligence. Another group shows a deficit in intelligence but normal language ability. Hydrocephalus and William’s Syndrome Selective Hydrocephalus is a condition where there's excess fluid in the brain, which can cause brain damage and various developmental delays, including language impairments. William's Syndrome is a rare genetic disorder that affects many parts of the body, including the brain. It's known to cause characteristic facial features and cognitive challenges, particularly in language and spatial reasoning. Language Impairment Aphasia- Wernicke’s and Broca’s only This refers to a specific type of language impairment called Aphasia. This is a condition that affects a person's ability to understand and produce language. There are different types of aphasia, and Wernicke's and Broca's areas are two key brain regions associated with specific types of aphasia. Wernicke's Aphasia: This type affects language comprehension. Individuals with Wernicke's aphasia can speak fluently, but their speech often lacks meaning or is nonsensical. They may have difficulty understanding what others say. Broca's Aphasia: This type affects language production. Individuals with Broca's aphasia have difficulty speaking fluently and forming grammatically correct sentences. However, they typically understand what others say. FRONTAL LOBE Hemispheric specialization for language This refers to the idea that the brain's two hemispheres are specialized for different functions. For language, the left hemisphere of the brain is typically dominant. It's responsible for most language functions, including speech production, comprehension, and grammar. Brain lesions left hemisphere This is a concise way of referring to damage to the left hemisphere of the brain. Brain lesions can occur due to stroke, trauma, or other neurological conditions. Such damage to the left hemisphere, especially in areas critical for language, can cause various language impairments like aphasia.