Medical Glossary - Digestive System PDF

**CHAPTER 9** **DIGESTIVE SYSTEM** This Chapter discusses the different terms related both on the normal and clinical aspects of the digestive system that may help the learner to enable to communicate with the allied health care workers in taking care of the patients holistically. **Duration:** [...

**CHAPTER 9** **DIGESTIVE SYSTEM** This Chapter discusses the different terms related both on the normal and clinical aspects of the digestive system that may help the learner to enable to communicate with the allied health care workers in taking care of the patients holistically. **Duration:** [ **1.5** hours] +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **MAJOR TOPICS** | +=======================================================================+ | 1. **Normal Structure and general functions of the digestive | | system** | | | | 2. Roots pertaining to the digestive system | | | | 3. Clinical symptoms and disorders of the digestive system | | | | 4. Common abbreviations and medical terminologies related to the | | digestive system | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **Let's Begin!** The digestive system is used in the human body for the process of digestion. It consists primarily of the digestive tract, or the series of structures and organs through which food and liquids pass during their processing into forms absorbable into the bloodstream. The system also consists of the structures through which wastes pass in the process of elimination and other organs that contribute juices for the digestive process. digestive system I. **ORGANS OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT** **ORGAN** **DIGESTIVE ACTIONS** ----------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Mouth Used to bite and chew food. Mixes food with saliva, which contains salivary amylase, an enzyme that begins the digestion of starch. Shapes food into small portions, which the tongue pushes into the pharynx. Pharynx Swallows food by reflex action and moves it into the esophagus Esophagus Moves food into the stomach by peristalsis Stomach Stores food; churns to mix food with water and digestive juices. Secretes protein-digesting hydrochloric acid (HCl) and the enzyme pepsin Small Intestine Secretes enzymes. Receives secretions from the accessory organs, which digest and neutralize food. Site of most digestion and absorption of nutrients into the circulation Large Intestine Forms, stores, and eliminates undigested waste material - **The Accessory Organs** **ORGAN** **DIGESTIVE ACTIONS** ----------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Salivary glands Secrete saliva, which moistens food and contains salivary amylase, an enzyme that begins the digestion of starch Liver Secretes bile salts that break down (emulsify) fats Gallbladder Stores bile and releases it into the digestive tract when needed Pancreas Secretes a variety of digestive enzymes. Also secretes bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid and water to dilute food  II. **NORMAL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION** **TERMS** **MEANING** --------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Anus The distal opening of the digestive tract (root: an/o) Appendix An appendage usually means the narrow tube of lymphatic tissue attached to the cecum, the vermiform (worm-like) appendix Bile the fluid secreted by the liver that emulsifies fats and aids in their absorption (roots: chole/, bili) Cecum A blind pouch at the beginning of the large intestine (root: cec/o) Colon The major portion of the large intestine; extends from the cecum to the rectum and is formed by ascending, transverse, and descending portions (roots: col/o, colon/o) Common Bile Duct The duct that carries bile into the duodenum, formed by the union of the cystic duct and the common hepatic duct (root: choledoch/o) Duodenum The first portion of the small intestine (root: duoden/o). Also pronounced da-OD-e-mum Enzyme An organic catalyst; speeds the rate of chemical reactions Esophagus The muscular tube that carries food from the pharynx to the stomach Feces The waste material eliminated from the intestine (adjective fecal); stool Gallbladder A sac on the under surface of the liver that stores bile (root: cholecyst/o) Hepatic Portal System A special circulatory pathway that brings blood directly from the abdominal organs to the liver for processing (also called simply the portal system). The vessel that enters the liver is the hepatic portal vein (portal vein) Ileum The terminal portion of the small intestine (root: ile/o) Intestine The portion of the digestive tract between the stomach and the anus. Ir consists of the small and large intestines. It functions in digestion, absorption, and elimination of waste (root: enter/o). Jejunum The middle portion of the small intestine (root: jejun/o) Lacteal A lymphatic capillary in a villus of the small intestine. Lacteals absorb digested fats intothe lymph Large Intestine The terminal portion of the digestive tract, consisting of the cecum, colon, rectum, and anus. It stores and eliminates undigested waste material (feces) Liver The large gland in the upper right abdomen. In addition to many other functions, it secretes bile needed for digestion and absorption of fats (root: hepat/o) Lower Esophagus Sphincter (LES) Muscle tissue at the distal end of the esophagus (gastroesophageal junction) that prevents stomach contents from refluxing into the esophagus. Also called the cardiac sphincter Mastication Chewing Mouth The oral cavity; contains the tongue and teeth. Used to take in and mix it with saliva, and move it toward the throat to be swallowed food Palate The roof of the mouth; the partition between the mouth and nasal cavity. Consists of an anterior portion formed by bone, the hard palate, and a posterior portion formed of tissue, the soft palate (root palat/o) Pancreas A large, elongated gland posterior to the stomach. It produces hormones that regulate sugar metabolism and also produces digestive enzymes (root pancreat/o) Peristalsis Wave-like contractions of an organ\'s walls; moves material through an organ or duct Peritoneum The large serous membrane that lines the abdominal cavity and supports the abdominal Pharynx The throat; a common passageway for food entering the esophagus and air entering the larynx (root: pharyng/o) Pylorus The stomach\'s distal opening into the duodenum (root: pylor/o). The opening is controlled by a ring of muscle, the pyloric sphincter Rectum The distal portion of the large intestine. It stores and eliminates undigested waste (roots: rect/o, proct/o) Saliva The clear secretion released into the mouth that moistens food and contains a starch-digesting enzyme (root: sial/o). Saliva is produced by three pairs of glands: the parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands Sigmoid Colon Distal S-shaped portion of the large intestine located between the descending colon and the rectum Small Intestine The portion of the intestine between the stomach and the large intestine; comprises the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. Accessory organs secrete into the small intestine, and almost all digestion and absorption occur there Stomach A muscular sac-like organ below the diaphragm that stores food and secretes juices the digest proteins (root: gastr/o) Uvula The fleshy mass that hangs from the soft palate; aids in speech production (literally \"little grape\") (root: uvul/o) Villi Tiny projections in the lining of the small intestine that absorb digested foods into the circulation (singular: villus) III. **ROOTS** - **Roots for the Mouth** +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Root** | **Meaning** | **Example** | **Definition of | | | | | Example** | +=================+=================+=================+=================+ | bucc/o | Cheek | buccoversion | Turning toward | | | | | the cheek | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | dent/o,dent/I | Tooth, teeth | edentulous | Without teeth | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | odont/o | Tooth, teeth | periodontics | Dental | | | | | speciality that | | | | | deals with the | | | | | study and | | | | | treatment of | | | | | the tissues | | | | | around the | | | | | teeth | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | gingiv/o | Gum (gingiva) | gingivectomy | Excision of the | | | | | gum tissue | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | gloss/o | tongue | glossoplegia | Paralysis | | | | | (-plegia of the | | | | | tongue) | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | lingu/o | tongue | orolingual | Pertaining to | | | | | the mouth and | | | | | tongue | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | or/o | Mouth | circumoral | Around the | | | | | mouth | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | stoma, stomat/o | mouth | xerostomia | Dryness (-xero) | | | | | of the mouth | | palat/o | | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | sial/o | Saliva, | sialogram | Radiograph of | | | salivary gland, | | the salivary | | | salivary duct | | gland and ducts | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | uvul/o | uvula | uvulotome | Instrument | | | | | (-tome) for | | | | | incising the | | | | | ovula | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ - **Roots for the Digestive Tract (except the mouth)** **Root** **Meaning** **Example** **Definition of Example** ---------------- --------------- --------------- --------------------------------------------------- esophag/o Esophagus esophageal Pertaining to the esophagus gastr/o stomach gastroparesis Partial paralysis (paresis) of the stomach pylor/o pylorus pyloroplasty Plastic repair of the pylorus enter/o Intestine dysentery Infection disease of the intestine duoden/o duodenum duodenostomy Surgical creation of an opening into the duodenum jejun/o jejunum jejunectomy Excision of the jejunum ile/o ileum ileitis Inflammation of the ileum cec/o cecum cecoptosis Downward displacement of the cecum col/o, colon/o Colon colonlysis Irrigation (-clysis) of the colon sigmoid/o sigmoid colon sigmoidscope An endoscope for examining the sigmoid colon rect/o rectum rectocele Hernia of the rectum proct/o Rectum proctoplexy Surgical fixation of the rectum - **Roots for the Accessory Organs** **Root** **Meaning** **Example** **Definition of Example** ---------------- ------------------ ----------------- ------------------------------------- hepat/o Liver hepatocyte A liver cell Bili Bile biliary Pertaining to the bile or bile duct chol/e, chol/o Bile, gall Cholestasis Stoppage of the bile flow cholecyst/o Gallbladder Cholecystogram Radiograph of the gallbladder cholangi/o Bile duct chalangioma Cancer of the bile duct choledoch/o Common bile duct Choledochal Pertaining o the common bilr duct pancreat/o Pancreas pancreatotropic Acting on the pancreas IV. **DISORDERS** **TERMS** **MEANING** ------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Appendicitis Inflammation of the appendix Ascites Accumulation of fluid in the abdominal cavity; a form of edema. May be caused by heart disease, lymphatic or venous obstruction, cirrhosis, or changes in blood plasma composition Barrett Syndrome Condition resulting from chronic esophagitis, as caused by gastroesophageal reflux disease. Inflammatory injury Can lead to esophageal spasms, scarring, strictures, and increased risk of cancer. Also called **Barrett Esophagus** Biliary Colic Acute abdominal pain caused by gallstones in the bile ducts Bilirubin A pigment released in the breakdown of hemoglobin from red blood cells; mainly excreted by the liver in bile Caries Tooth decay Celiac Disease Inability to absorb foods containing gluten, a protein found in wheat and some other grains; caused by an excess immune response to gluten Cholencystitis Inflammation of the gallbladder Cholelithiasis The condition of having stones in the gallbladder; also used to refer to stones in the common bile duct Cirrhosis Chronic liver disease with degeneration of liver tissue Crohn Disease A chronic inflammatory disease of the gastrointestinal tract usually involving the ileum and colon Diarrhea The frequent passage of watery bowel movements Diverticulitis Inflammation of diverticula (small pouches) in the wall of the digestive tract, especially in the colon Diverticulosis The presence of diverticula, especially in the colon Dysphagia Difficulty in swallowing Emesis Vomiting Fistula An abnormal passageway between two organs or from an organ to the body surface, such as between the rectum and anus (anorectal fistula) Gastroenteritis Inflammation of the stomach and intestine Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) Condition caused by reflux of gastric juices into the esophagus resulting in heartburn regurgitation, inflammation, and possible damage to the esophagus; caused by weakness of the lower esophageal sphincter (LES) Heartburn A warm or burning sensation felt behind the sternum and radiating upward. Commonly associated with gastroesophageal reflux. Medical name is pyrosis (pyrlo means \"heat\") Hemorrhoids Varicose veins in the rectum associated with pain, bleeding, and sometimes rectal prolapse; piles Hepatitis Inflammation of the liver; commonly caused by a viral infection Hepatomegaly Enlargement of the liver Hiatal Hernia A protrusion of the stomach through the opening (hiatus) in the diaphragm through which the esophagus passes Icterus jaundice Ileus Intestinal obstruction. May be caused by lack of peristalsis (adynamic, paralytic ileus) or by contraction (dynamic ileus). Intestinal matter and gas may be relieved by insertion of a drainage tube Intussusception Slipping of one intestinal segment into another part below it. Occurs mainly in male infants in the ileocecal region. May be fatal if untreated for more than one day Jaundice A yellowish color of the skin, mucous membranes, and whites of the eye caused by bile pigments in the blood (from French jaune meaning \"yellow\"), The main pigment is bilirubin, a byproduct of erythrocyte destruction Leukoplakia White patches on mucous membranes, as on the tongue or cheeks, often resulting from smoking or other irritants; may be precancerous Nausea An unpleasant sensation in the upper abdomen that often precedes vomiting. Typically occurs in digestive upset, motion sickness, and sometimes early pregnancy Occult Blood Blood present in such small amounts that it can be detected only microscopically chemically; in the feces, a sign of intestinal bleeding (occult means \"hidden\") Pancreatitis Inflammation of the pancreas Peptic Ulcer A lesion in the mucous membrane of the esophagus, stomach, or duodenum caused by the action of gastric juice Perotinitis Inflammation of the peritoneum, the membrane that lines the abdominal cavity and covers the abdominal organs. May result from perforation of an ulcer, ruptured appendix, or reproductive tract infection, among other causes Polyp A tumor that grows on a stalk and bleeds easily Portal Hypertension An abnormal pressure increases in the hepatic portal system, May be caused by cirrhosis, infection, thrombosis, or a tumor Pyloric Stenosis Narrowing of the opening between the stomach and the duodenum; pylorostenosis Regurgitation A backward flowing, such as the backflow of undigested food Spienomegaly Enlargement of the spleen Ulcerative Collitis Chronic ulceration of the rectum and colon; the cause is unknown, but may involve autoimmunity Volvulus Twisting of the intestine resulting in obstruction. Usually involves the sigmoid colon and occurs most often in children and in the elderly. May be caused by congenital malformation, a foreign body, or adhesion, Failure to treat immediately may result in death **Diagnosis and Treatment** Anastomosis A passage or communication between two vessels or organs. May be normal or pathologic or may be created surgically Barium Study Use of barium sulfate as a liquid contrast medium for fluoroscopic or radiographic study of the digestive tract. Can show obstruction, tumors, ulcers, hiatal hernia, and motility disorders, among other conditions Cholecystectomy Surgical removal of the gallbladder Dukes Classification A system for staging colorectal cancer based on degree of bowel wall penetration and lymph node involvement; severity is graded from A to C Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) A technique for viewing, the pancreatic and bile ducts and for performing certain techniques to relieve obstructions. Contrast medium is injected into the biliary system from the duodenum before radiographs are taken Endoscopy Use of a fiberoptic endoscope for direct visual examination. GI studies include esophagogastroduodenoscopy, proctosigmoidoscopy (rectum and distal colon), and colonoscopy (all regions of the colon) Ostomy An opening into the body; generally refers to an opening created for elimination of body waste. Also refers to the operation done to create such an opening (see stoma) Stoma A surgically created opening to the body surface or between two organs (literally \"mouth\") V. **SUPPLEMENTARY TERMS:** - **Normal Structure and Function** **Terms** **Meaning** ------------------ -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Bolus A mass, such as the rounded mass of food that is swallowed Cardia The part of the stomach near the esophagus, named for its closeness to the heart Chyme The semi-liquid partially digested food that moves from the stomach into the small intestine Defecation The evacuation of feces from the rectum Deglutition Swallowing Duodenal Bulb The part of the duodenum near the pylorus; the first bend (flexure) of the duodenum Duodenal Papilla The raised area where the common bile duct and pancreatic duct enter the duodenum; papilla of Vater (FA-ter) Greater Omentum A fold of the peritoneum that extends from the stomach over the abdominal organs Hepatic Flexure The right bend of the colon, forming the junction between the ascending colon and the transverse colon Ileocecal Valve A valve-like structure between the ileum of the small intestine and the cecum of the large intestine Messentery The portion of the peritoneum that folds over and supports the intestine Mesocolon The portion of the peritoneum that folds over and supports the colon Papilla Of Vater See duodenal papilla Rugae The large folds in the stomach\'s lining seen when the stomach is empty Sphinter Of Oddi The muscular ring at the opening of the common bile duct into the duodenum Splenic Flexure The left bend of the colon, forming the junction between the transverse colon and the descending colon - **Disorders** **Terms** **Meaning** -------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Achalasia Failure of a smooth muscle to relax, especially the lower esophageal sphincter so that food is retained in the esophagus Achlorhydria Lack of hydrochloric acid in the stomach; opposite is hyperchlorhydria Anorexia Loss of appetite. Anorexia nervosa is a psychologically induced refusal or inability to eat (adjectives: anorectic, anorexic) Aphagia Inability to swallow or difficulty in swallowing, refusal or inability to eat Aphthous Ulcer An ulcer in a mucous membrane, as in the mouth Bruxism Clenching and grinding of the teeth, usually during sleep Bulimia Excessive, insatiable appetite. A disorder characterized by overeating followed by induced vomiting, diarrhea, or fasting Cachexia Profound ill health, malnutrition, and wasting Cheilosis Cracking at the corners of the mouth, often caused by B vitamin deficiency (root cheil/o means \"lip Cholestasis Stoppage of bile flow. Also pronounced ko-LES-ta-sis Constipation Infrequency or difficulty in defecation and the passage of hard, dry feces Dyspepsia Poor or painful digestion Eructation Belching Familial Adenomatous Polyposis (FAP) A heredity condition in which multiple polyps form in the colon and rectum, predisposing to colorectal cancer Flatulence Condition of having gas or air in the Gl tract Flatus Gas or air in the gastrointestinal tract; gas or air expelled through the anus Hematemesis Vomiting of blood Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) A chronic stress-related disease characterized by diarrhea, constipation, and pain associated with rhythmic intestinal contractions. Mucous colitis, spastic colon Megacolon An extremely dilated colon. Usually congenital but may occur in acute ulcerative colitis Melena Black tarry feces resulting from blood in the intestines. Common in new borns. May alsobe a sign of gastrointestinal bleeding Obstipation Extreme constipation Pernicious Anemia A form of anemia caused by the stomach\'s failure to secrete intrinsic factor, a substance needed for the absorption of vitamin B12 Pilonidal Cyst A dermal cyst in the sacral region, usually at the top of the cleft between the buttocks. May become infected and begin to drain Thrush Fungal infection of the mouth and/or throat caused by Candida; appears as mucosal white patches or ulcers Vincent Disease Severe gingivitis with necrosis associated with the bacterium. Treponema vincenti, necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis; trench mouth - **Diagnosis and Treatment** **Terms** **Meaning** ------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Appendectomy Surgical removal of the appendix Bariatrics The branch of medicine concerned with prevention and control of obesity and associated Bariatic Surgery Surgery to reduce the size of the stomach and reduce nutrient absorption in the treatment of morbid obesity. Most common is gastric bypass surgery, which involves division of the stomach and anastomosis of its upper part to the small intestine (jejunum)Other methods are gastric stapling, partitioning of the stomach with rows of staples, and gastric banding, which involves laparoscopic placement of an adjustable loop (Lap-Band) that reduces stomach capacity Billroth Operation Gastrectomy which anastomosis of the stomach to the duodenum (Bullroth 1) or to the jejunum (Ballroch II) Gavage Process of feeding through a nasogastric tube into the stomach Lavage Washing out of a cavity; irrigation Manometry Measurement of pressure; pertaining to the GI tract, measurement of pressure in the portal system as a sign of obstruction Murphy Sign Inability to take a deep breath when fingers are pressed firmly below the right arch of the ribs (below the liver). Signifies gallbladder disease Nasogastric (NG) Tube Tube that is passed through the nose into the stomach May be used for emptying the stomach, administering medication, giving liquids, or sampling stomach contents Parenteral Hyperalimentation Complete intravenous feeding for one who cannot take in food. Total parenteral nutrition (TPN) Percutaneous Endoscopic Gastrostomy (PEG) Tube Tube inserted into the stomach for long-term feeding Vagotomy Interruption of vagal nerve impulses to reduce stomach secretions in the treatment of a gastric ulcer. Originally done surgically but may also be done with drugs - **[Drugs ]** **Terms** **Meaning** ------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Antacid Agent that counteracts acidity, usually gastric acidity Antidiarrheal Drug that treats or prevents diarrhea by reducing intestinal motility or absorbing irritants and soothing the intestinal lining Antiemetic Agent that relieves or prevents nausea and vomiting Antiflatulent Agent that prevents or relieves flatulence Emetic Agent that relieves spasm, usually of smooth muscle Histamine H2 Antagonist An agent that causes vomiting Laxative Drug that decreases secretion of stomach acid by interfering with the action of histamine at H, receptors. Used to treat ulcers and other gastroiritestinal problems. Hy-receptor blocking agent Proton Pump Inhibitor Agent that promotes elimination from the large intestine. Types include stimulants, substances that retain water **CHAPTER 10** **URINARY SYSTEM** This chapter reviews the concepts on the anatomy and physiology and medical terminology in reference to the urinary system. It helps the learners interpret abbreviations and terminologies to be able to communicate well with other health care workers in taking care individual clients with urinary problems/disorders. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **MAJOR TOPICS** | +=======================================================================+ | 1. **Normal structure and general functions of the urinary system** | | | | 2. Roots pertaining to the urinary system | | | | 3. Clinical signs and symptoms, disorders involving the urinary | | system | | | | 4. Common abbreviations and other medical terminologies related to | | the urinary system | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **Activities:** 1. **Labeling Exercise** 2. **Word Building** 3. **Crossword Puzzle** **Let's Begin!** The urinary tract is the body's drainage system for removing urine, which is made up of extra fluid. For normal urination to occur, all body parts in the urinary tract need to work together, and in the correct order. **PART OF THE URINARY TRACT:** - - - - **Note:** All parts of the urinary tract---the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra---must work together to urinate normally. urinary tract  **KEY TERM** I. **Normal Structure and Function** **Terms** **Definition** ---------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Antidiuretic Hormone (Adh) A hormone release by a pituitary gland that causes water reabsorption in the kidneys, thus concentrating the urine. Angiotensin A substance that increases blood pressure, activated in the body by a renin, an enzyme produced by the kidneys Calyx A cup-like cavity in the pelvis of the kidneys; also calix (plural:Calices) (roots: cali, calic) Diuresis Excretion of urine; usually meaning increased urinary excretion Diuretic A substance the increases the excretion of urine; pertaining to diuresis Erythropoietin (Epo) A hormone produce by the kidneys that stimulates red blood cell production in the bone marrow Glomerular Capsule A cup-shaped structure at the beginning of the nephron that surrounds the glomerulus and received material filtered out of the blood; Bowman capsule Glomerular Filtrate The fluid and dissolve materials that filter out of the blood and enter the nephron through the glomerular capsule Glomerulus The cluster of capillaries within the glomerular capsule (plural: glomeruli) (roo:glomerul/o) Kidney An organ of excretion (root: re/o, nephr/o); the two kidneys filter the blood and form urine, which contain metabolic waste products and other substances as needed to regulate the water, electrolyte, and pH balance of the body fluids Micturition The voiding of urine, urination Nephron A microscopic functional unit of the kidney; working with blood vessels, the nephron filters the blood and blood balances the composition of urine. Renal Cortex The kidney's outer portion; contains portions of the nephrons Renal Medulla The kidney's inner portion, contains portions of the nephrons and ducts that transport urine toward the renal pelvis. Renal Pelvis The expanded upper end of the ureter that receives urine from the kidney; Greek root pyel/o means basin Renal Pyramid A triangular structure in the renal medulla; composed of the nephrons' loops and collecting ducts Renin An enzyme produced by the kidneys that activates angiotensin in the blood Trigone A triangular at the base of the bladder formed by the openings of the 2 ureters and the urethra Tubular Reabsorption The return of substances from the glomerular filtrate to the blood through the peri-tubular capillaries Urea The main nitrogenous (nitrogen-containing) waste product in the urine Ureter The tube that carries urine from the kidney to the bladder (root: ureter/o) Urethra The tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body (root: urethr/o) Urinary Bladder The organ that stores and eliminates urine excreted by the kidneys (root: cyst/o, vesic/o) Urination The voiding of urine; urination Urine The fluid excreted by the kidneys. It consists of water, electrolytes, urea, other metabolic wastes, and pigments. A variety of other substances may appear in the urine in cases of disease. (root: ur/o) I. **Roots Pertaining to the Urinary System** **Root** **Meaning** **Example** **Definition of example** ----------------- ---------------------- ----------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Ren/o kidney Suprarenal above the kidney Nephr/o Kidney Nephrosis Any noninflammatory disease condition of the kidney Glomerul/o Glomerulus Juxtaglomerular Near the glomerulus Pyel/o Renal pelvis Pyelectasis dilatation of the renal pelvis Cali/o, calic/o Calyx Caliceal Pertaining to a renal calyx (note addition of e);also spelled calyceal ur/o Urine, urinary tract Urosepsis Generalized infection that originates in the urinary tract Urin/o Urine Nocturia Urination during the night Ureter/o Ureter Ureterostenosis Narrowing of the ureter Cyst/o Urinary bladder Cystocele Hernia of the urinary bladder Vesic/o Urinary bladder Intravesical Within the urinary bladder Urethr/o Urethra Urethrotome Instrument for incising the urethra II. **Clinical Aspect of the Urinary Bladder** **Terms** **Definition** -------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Acidosis Excessive acidity of the body fluids Bacteriuria Presence of bacteria in the urine Cast A solid mold of a renal tube found in the urine Cystitis Inflammation of the urinary bladder, usually as a result of infection Dysuria Painful or difficult urination Glomerulonephritis Inflammation of the kidney primarily involving the glomeruli. The acute form usually occurs after an infection elsewhere in the body;the chronic form varies in cause and usually leads to renal failure Hematuria Presence of blood in the urine Hydronephrosis Collection of urine in the renal pelvis caused by obstruction;results in distention and renal atrophy Hypokalemia Deficiency of potassium in the blood Hyponatremia Deficiency of sodium in the blood Hypoproteinemia Decreased amount of protein in the blood;maybe caused by kidney damage resulting in protein loss Hyperkalemia Excess amount of potassium in the blood Hypernatremia Excess amount of sodium in the blood Nephrotic Syndrome Condition that results from glomerular damage leading to loss of protein in the urine (proteinuria). There is low plasma protein (hypoproteinemia), edema and increased blood lipids as the liver releases lipoproteins. Also called Nephrosis Oliguria Elimination of small amounts of urine Proteinuria Presence of protein, mainly albumin, in the urine Pyelonephritis Inflammation of the renal pelvis and kidney, usually by infection Pyuria Presence of pus in the urine Renal colic Radiating pain in the region of the kidney associated with the passage of a stone Uremia Presence of toxic levels of urea and other nitrogenous substances in the blood as a result of renal insufficiency Urethritis Inflammation of the urethra, usually due to infection Urinary stasis Stoppage of urine flow; urinary stagnation III. **[Diagnosis and Treatment ]** **Terms** **Definition** ------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Catheterization Introduction of tube into a passage, such as through the urethra into the bladder for withdrawal of urine Cystoscope An instrument for examining the interior of the urinary bladder. Also used for removing foreign objects, for surgery and for other forms of treatment Dialysis Separation of substances by passage through a semi-permeable membrane. Dialysis is used to rid the body of unwanted substances when the kidneys are impaired or missing. The two forms of dialysis are hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis. Hemodialysis Removal of unwanted substances from the blood by passage through s semipermeable membrane Intravenous Pyelography (IVP) Intravenous urography Intravenous urography (IVU) Radiographic visualization of the urinary tract after intravenous administration of a contrast medium that is excreted in the urine;also called excretory urography or intravenous pyelography, although the latter is less accurate because the procedure shows more than just the renal pelvis Lithotripsy Crushing of a stone Peritoneal dialysis Removal of unwanted substances from the body by introduction of a dialyzing fluid into the peritoneal cavity followed by removal of the fluid Retrograde pyelography Pyelography in which the contrast medium is injected into the kidneys from below, by way of the ureters Specific gravity The weight of a substance compared with the weight of an equal volume of water. the specific gravity of normal urine ranges from 1.015 to 1.025. This value may increase or decrease in disease. Urinalysis Laboratory study of the urine. Physical and chemical properties and microscopic appearance are included Indwelling Foley Catheter A urinary tract catheter with a balloon at one end that prevents the catheter from leaving the bladder Lithotrite Instrument for crushing a bladder stone Anion gap A measure of electrolyte imbalance Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) Nitrogen in the blood in the form of urea.An increase in BUN indicates an increase in nitrogenous waste products in the blood and renal failure. Clean-catch specimen A urine sample obtained after thorough cleansing of the urethral opening and collection in midstream to minimize the chance of contamination. Cystometrography A study of bladder function in which the bladder is filled with fluid or air and the pressure exerted by the bladder muscle at varying degrees of filling is measured. The tracing recorded is cystometrogram Protein electrophoresis Laboratory study of urinary proteins; used to diagnose multiple myeloma,Systemic Lupus Erythematosus, and lymphoid tumor Urinometer Device for measuring the specific gravity of urine **Terms** **Definition** ----------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Cystectomy Surgical removal of all part of the urinary bladder Ileal conduit Diversion of urine by connection of the ureters to an isolated segment of the ileum. One end of the segment is sealed, and the other drains through an opening in the abdominal wall. A procedure used when the bladder is removed or nonfunctional. Also called ileal bladder. Lithotomy Incision of an organ to remove a stone Renal transplantation Surgical implantation of a donor kidney into a patient IV. **Surgery** V. **Normal Structure and Function : Supplementary terms:** **Terms** **Definition** ---------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Aldosterone A hormone secreted by the adrenal gland that regulates electrolyte excretion by the kidneys Clearance The volume of plasma that the kidneys can clear of a substance per unit of time;renal plasma clearance Creatinine A nitrogenous byproduct of muscle metabolism. An increase in blood creatinine is a sign of renal failure Detrusor Muscle The muscle in the bladder wall Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) The amount of filtrate formed per minute by both kidneys Maximum Transport Capacity ( TM) The maximum rate at which a given substance can be transported across the renal tubule;tubular maximum Renal Corpuscle The glomerular capsule and the glomerulus considered as a unit;the filtration device of the kidney VI. **Symptoms and Conditions** **Terms** **Definition** --------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Anuresis Lack of urination Anuria Lack of urine formation Azotemia Presence of increased nitrogenous waste, especially urea in the blood Azoturia Presence of increased nitrogenous compounds,especially urea in the urine Cystocele Herniation of the bladder into the vagina;vesicocele Dehydration Excessive loss of body fluids Diabetes Insipidus A condition caused by inadequate production of antidiuretic hormone, resulting in excessive excretion of dilute urine and extreme thirst Enuresis Involuntary urination,usually at night; bed wetting Epispadias A congenital condition in which the urethra opens on the dorsal surface of the penis as a groove or cleft; anaspadias Glycosuria Presence of glucose in the urine, as in cases of diabetes mellitus Horseshoe Kidney A congenital union of the lower pole of the kidneys, resulting in a horseshoe-shaped organ Hydroureter Distention of the ureter with urine due to obstruction Hypospadias A congenital condition in which the urethra opens on the undersurface of the penis or into the vagina Hypovolemia A decrease in blood volume Neurogenic Bladder Any bladder dysfunction that results from a central nervous system lesion Nocturia Excessive urination at night Polycystic Kidney Disease A hereditary condition in which the kidneys are enlarged and contain many cysts Polydipsia Excessive thirst Polyuria Elimination of large amounts of urine;as in diabetes mellitus Retention Of Urine Accumulation of urine in the bladder because of an inability to urinate Staghorn Calculus A kidney stone that fills the renal pelvis and calices to give a "staghorn" appearance Ureterocele A cyst-like dilation of the ureter near its opening into the bladder. Usually results from a congenital narrowing of the ureteral opening. Urinary Frequency A need to urinate often without an increase in average output Urinary Incontinence Inability to retain urine; may originate with a neurologic disorder,trauma to the spinal cord,weakness of the pelvic muscles, urinary retention, or impaired bladder function.In urgency incontinence,an urge causes sudden urination before one has enough time to reach a bathroom. In stress incontinence,urine leaks during a forceful activity such as coughing,sneezing or exercise. Urinary Urgency Sudden need to urinate Water Intoxication Excessive intake or retention of water with decrease in sodium concentration.May result from excess drinking ,excess ADH,or replacement of a large amount of body fluid with pure water. Causes an imbalance in the cellular environment,with edema and other disturbances. Wilms Tumor A malignant kidney tumor that usually appears in children before the age of 5 years **CHAPTER 11** **ENDOCRINE SYSTEM** This chapter reviews the concepts on the normal structures, functions, disorders, diagnostic procedures and terms used related to the endocrine system that may facilitate the learners to correctly communicate terms with the allied health care workers in taking care of the patients having endocrine related problems. **Duration: 1.5** [hours] +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **MAJOR TOPICS** | +=======================================================================+ | - Organization of the and endocrine system | | | | - Roots/ Word parts pertaining to the endocrine system | | | | - Clinical signs and symptoms, disorders involving endocrine system | | | | - Common abbreviations and other medical terminologies related to | | endocrine system | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **Key Terms:** - - Exocrine - Endocrine - Glands - Pituitary - Thalamus - Hypothalamus **Let's Begin!** The\_Endocrine\_System I. **Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones** **Gland** **Hormones** **Principal Function** ------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ **ANTERIOR PITUITARY** GH (Growth Hormone), Also Called Somatotropin Promote growth of all body tissue TSH (Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone) Stimulate thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormone ACTH (Adrenocorticortopin Hormone) Stimulates adrenal cortex to produce cortical hormones; aids in protecting body in stress situations (injury, pain) FSH (Follicle-Stimulating Hormone) Stimulates growth and hormonal activity of ovarian follicles; stimulates growth of testes; promotes sperm cell development LH (Luteinizing Hormone) Causes development of corpus luteum at site of ruptured ovarian follicle in female; stimulates testosterone secretion in male PRL (Prolactin) Stimulates milk secretion by mammary gland **POSTERIOR PITUITARY** ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone; Vasopressin) Promotes water reabsorption in kidney tubules; causes blood vessels to constrict Oxytocin Causes uterine contraction; causes milk ejection from mammary gland **THYROID** Thyroxine Or Tetraiodothyronine And Triiodothyronine Increase metabolic rate and heat production, influencing both physical and mental activities; required for normal growth **PARATHYROID** Parathyroid Hormone Regulates calcium exchange between blood and bones; increases blood calcium level **ADRENAL MEDULLA** Epinephrine (Adrenaline) Response to stress; increases respiration, blood pressure, and heat rate **PINEAL** Melatonin Regulates mood, sexual development, and daily cycles in response to environmental light **ADRENAL CORTEX** Cortisol (Hydrocortisone) Aids in metabolism of carbohydrates, protein, and fats, active during stress Aldosterone Aids in regulating electrolytes and water balance Sex Hormones May influence secondary sexual characteristics **PANCREATIC ISLET** Insulin Aids glucose transport into cells; required for cellular metabolism of nutrient, especially glucose; decreases blood sugar levels Glucagon Stimulates liver to release glucose, thereby increasing blood sugar levels **TESTIS** Testosterone Stimulate growth and development of sexual organs plus development of secondary sexual characteristics; stimulate maturation of sperm cells **OVARY** Estrogen Stimulates growth of primary sexual organs plus development of secondary sexual characteristic Progesterone Prepare uterine lining in implantation of fertilized ovum; aids in maintaining pregnancy; stimulates development of mammary glands' secretory tissue **KEY TERMS**  II. **Normal Structure and Function** **TERMS** **MEANING** ------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Adrenal Gland A gland on the superior surface of the kidney. The outer region (cortex) secretes steroid hormones; inner region (medulla) secretes epinephrine (adrenaline) in response to stress (root: adren/o) Endocrine Pertaining to a ductless gland that secretes hormones into the blood Hormone A secretion of an endocrine gland. A substances that travels in the blood and has a regulatory effect of tissues, organs, or glands Hypophysis The pituitary gland; named from hypo, meaning "below" and physis meaning "growing" because of the gland develops below the hypothalamus (root: hypophysi/o) Hypothalamus A portion of the brain that controls the pituitary gland and is active in maintaining homeostasis Pancreatic Islet Cluster of endocrine cells in the pancreas that secretes hormones to regulate glucose metabolism; also called islet of Langerhans or islet cells (root: insul/o means island) Parathyroid Gland A small endocrine gland on the posterior thyroid that acts to increase blood calcium levels; there are usually four to six parathyroid glands (root: parathyr/o, parathyroid/o); the names literally means "near the thyro" Pineal Gland a small gland in the brain, appears to regulate mood, daily rhythms, and sexual development in response to environmental light. Secretes the hormone melatonin Pituitary Gland A small endocrine gland at the base of the brain. The anterior lobe secretes growth hormone and hormones that stimulates other glands; the posterior lobe releases ADH and oxytocin manufactured in the hypothalamus (root: pituitary/I); hypophysis Prostaglandins A group of hormones produced throughout the body that have a variety of effects, including stimulation or uterine contractions and regulation of blood pressure, blood clotting, inflammation Receptor A site on the cell membrane or within the cell to which a substance, such as hormone, attaches Steroid Hormone A hormone made from lipids and including the sex hormones and the hormones of the adrenal cortex Target Tissues The specific tissue on which a hormone acts; may also be called target organ Thyroid Gland An endocrine on either side of the larynx and upper trachea. It secretes hormones that affects metabolism and growth (roots; thyr/o, thyroid/o) III. **Roots Pertaining to the Endocrine System** **Root** **Meaning** **Example** **Definition of Example** --------------------------- ------------------------------ --------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------- Endocrine/O Endocrine glands or system Endocrinopathy Any disease of the endocrine glands Pituitar/O Pituitary glands, hypophysis Pituitarism Condition caused by any disorder of pituitary function Hypophysi/O Pituitary glands, hypophysis Hypophysial Pertaining to the pituitary gland Thyr/O, Thyroid/O Thyroid gland Phyrolytic Destroying the thyroid gland Parathyr/O, Parathyroid/O Parathyroid gland Hyperparathyroidism Over activity of the parathyroid gland Adren/O, Adrenal/O Adrenal gland, epinephrine Adregenic Activated (erg) by or related to epinephrine (adrenaline) Adrenocortic/O Adrenal cortex Adrenocorticotropic Acting on the adrenal cortex) Insul/O Pancreatic islet Insular Pertaining to the islet cell IV. **Clinical Aspects of Endocrine System** **Disorders** **Definition** ---------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Acromegaly Overgrowth of bone and soft tissue, especially in the hands, feet, and face, caused by excess growth hormone in an adult. The name comes from acro meaning extremity\" and Megal/o meaning enlargement Addison Disease A disease resulting from deficiency of adrenocortical hormones. It is marked by darkening of the skin, weakness, and alterations in salt and water balance Adenoma A neoplasm of a gland Adult Hypothyroidism A condition caused by hypothyroidism in an adult. There is dry, waxy swelling, most notable in the face; formerly called myxedema (miks-e-DE-ma) Cushing Disease Overactivity of the adrenal cortex resulting from excess production of ACTH by the pituitary Cushing Syndrome A condition resulting from an excess of hormones from the adrenal cortex. It is associated with obesity, weakness, hyperglycemia, hypertension, and hirsutism *(excess hair growth)* Diabetes Insipidus A disorder caused by insufficient release of ADH from the posterior pituitary. It results in excessive thirst and production of large amounts of very dilute urine. The word insipidus means \"tasteless,\" referring to the dilution of the urine Diabetes Mellitus (DM) A disorder of glucose metabolism caused by deficiency of insulin production or inadequate tissue response to insulin. Type 1 results from autoimmune destruction of pancreatic islet cells; it generally appears in children and requires insulin administration. Type 2 generally occurs in obese adults; it is treated with duct, exercise, and drugs to improve insulin production or activity, and sometimes insulin. The word mellitus. Comes from the Latin root for honey, referring to the urine\'s sugar content Exophthalmos Protrusion of the eyeballs, as seen in Graves disease Gigantism Overgrowth caused by excess growth hormone from the pituitary during childhood; also called gigantism Glycated Hemoglobin (Hba1c) Test A test that measures the binding of glucose to hemoglobin during the lifespan of a red blood cell. It reflects the average blood glucose level over two to three months and is useful in evaluating long-term therapy for diabetes mellitus. Also called A1c test Glycosuria Excess sugar in the urine Goiter Enlargement of the thyroid gland. May be toxic or nontoxic. Simple *(nontoxic)* goiter is caused by iodine deficiency Graves Disease An autoimmune disease resulting in hyperthyroidism. A prominent symptom is exophthalmos *(protrusion of the eyeballs)*. Also called diffuse toxic goiter Hyperglycemia Excess glucose in the blood Hypoglycemia A abnormally low level of glucose in the blood Infantile Hypothyroidism A condition caused by congenital lack of thyroid secretion and marked by arrested physical and mental development; also called congenital hypothyroidism Insulin Shock A condition resulting from an overdose of insulin, causing hypoglycaemia Ketoacidosis Acidosis *(increased acidity of body fluids)* caused by excess ketone bodies, as in diabetes mellitus; diabetic acidosis Metabolic Syndrome A state of hyperglycemia caused by cellular resistance to insulin, as seen in type 2 diabetes, in association with other metabolic disorders;; also called syndrome X or insulin resistance syndrome Panhypopituitarism Underactivity of the entire pituitary gland Tetany Irritability and spasms of muscles; may be caused by low blood calcium and other factors **SUPPLEMENTARY TERMS** I. **Normal Structure and Function** **TERMS** **DEFINITION** --------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ sella turcica A saddle-shaped depression in the sphenoid bone that contains the pituitary gland (literally means \"Turkish saddle\") sphenoid bone A bone at the base of the skull that houses the pituitary gland II. **Symptoms and Conditions** addisons-disease **\\** Graves-Disease +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Terms** | **Definition** | +===================================+===================================+ | Adrenogenital Syndrome | Condition caused by | | | overproduction of androgens from | | | the adrenal cortex resulting in | | | masculinization; may be | | | congenital or acquired, usually | | | as a result of an adrenal tumor | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Conn Syndrome | Hyperaldosteronism caused by an | | | adrenal tumor | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Craniopharyngioma | A benign tumor of the pituitary | | | gland | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Hashimoto Disease | A chronic thyroiditis of | | | autoimmune origin | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Impaired Glucose | High blood glucose levels after | | | glucose intake that may signal | | | borderline diabetes mellitus | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Ketosis | Accumulation of ketone bodies, | | | such as acetone, in the body. | | | Usually results from deficiency | | | or faulty metabolism of | | | carbohydrates, as in cases of | | | diabetes mellitus and starvation | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Multiple Endocrine | A hereditary disorder that causes | | | tumors in several endocrine | | | glands; classified according to | | | the combination of glands | | | involved | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Pheochromocytoma | A usually benign tumor of the | | | adrenal medulla or other | | | structures containing chromaffin | | | cells *(cells that stain with | | | chromium salts)*; phelo means | | | \"brown\" or \"dusky.\" The | | | adrenal tumor causes increased | | | production of epinephrine | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Pituitary Apoplexy | Sudden massive hemorrhage and | | | degeneration of the pituitary | | | gland associated with a pituitary | | | tumor. Common symptoms include | | | severe headache, visual problems, | | | and loss of consciousness | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) | A mood disorder with lethargy, | | | depression, excessive need for | | | sleep, and overeating that | | | generally occurs in winter. | | | Thought to be related to | | | melatonin levels as | | | | | | influenced by environmental light | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Simmonds Disease | Hypofunction of the anterior | | | pituitary *(panhypopituitarism),* | | | usually because of an infarction; | | | pituitary cachexia | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Thyroid Storm | A sudden onset of thyrotoxicosis | | | symptoms occurring in patients | | | with hyperthyroidism who are | | | untreated or poorly treated. May | | | be brought on by illness or | | | trauma. Also called thyroid | | | crisis | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Thyrotoxicosis | Condition resulting from | | | overactivity of the thyroid | | | gland. Symptoms include anxiety, | | | irritability, weight loss, and | | | sweating. The main example of | | | thyrotoxicosis is Graves disease | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Von Recklinghausen Disease | Bone degeneration caused by | | | excess production of parathyroid | | | hormone. Also called | | | Recklinghausen disease of bone | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ III. **Diagnosis and Treatment** **Terms** **Definition** --------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG) Measurement of blood glucose after a fast of at least eight hours. A reading equal to or greater than 126 mg/dL indicates diabetes. Also called fasting blood glucose (FBG) or fasting blood sugar (FBS) Free Thyroxine Index (FTI,T7) Calculation based on the amount of T, present and Ty uptake, used to diagnose thyroid dysfunction Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT) Measurement of glucose levels in blood plasma after administration of a challenge dose of glucose to a fasting patient. Used to measure patient\'s ability to metabolize glucose. A value equal to or greater than 200 mg/dL in the two-hour sample indicates diabetes Radioactive Iodine Uptake Test (RAIU) A test that measures thyroid uptake of radioactive iodine as an evaluation of thyroid function Radioimmunoassay (RIA) A method of measuring very small amounts of a substance, especially hormones in blood plasma using radioactively labeled hormones and specific antibodies Thyroid Scan Visualization of the thyroid gland after administration of radioactive iodine Thyroxine-Binding Globulin (TBG) Test Test that measures the main protein that binds T, in the blood Transsphenoidal Adenomectomy Removal of a pituitary tumor through the sphenoid sinus (space in the sphenoid bone) **CHAPTER 12** **NERVOUS SYSTEM** This chapter reviews the concepts on the normal structures, functions, disorders, diagnostic procedures and terms used related to the nervous system that may facilitate the learners to correctly communicate terms with the allied health care workers in taking care of the patients having nervous system related problems. **Duration: 1.5** [hours] +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **MAJOR TOPICS** | +=======================================================================+ | 1. Organization of the nervous system | | | | 2. Roots/ Word parts pertaining to the nervous system | | | | 3. Clinical signs and symptoms, disorders involving nervous system | | | | 4. Common abbreviations and other medical terminologies related to | | nervous system | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **Key Terms:** - Cranial Nerves - Neuron - Brain - Reflex **Let's Begin!** **The Nervous System and Behavioral Disorders** I. **The Cranial Nerves** **No.** **Name** **Function** --------- ------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I Olfactory Carries impulses for the sense of smell II Optic Carries impulses for the sense of vision III Oculomotor Controls movement of the eye muscles IV Trochlear Controls a muscle of the eyeball V Trigeminal Carries sensory impulses from the face; controls chewing muscle VI Abducens Controls a muscle of the eyeball VII Facial Controls the muscles of facial expression, salivary glands, and tear glands; conducts some impulses for taste VIII Vestibulocochlear Conducts impulses for hearing and equilibrium; also called auditory or acoustic nerve IX Glossopharyngeal Conducts sensory impulses from tongue and pharynx; stimulates parotid salivary gland and partly controls swallowing X Vagus Supplies most organs of thorax and abdomen; contrls digestive secretions XI Spinal Accessory Cotrols muscle of the neck XII Hypoglossal Controls muscle of the tongue +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Normal Structure and Function** | | +===================================+===================================+ | Affernent | Carrying toward a given point, | | | such as the sensory neurons and | | | nerves that carry impulses toward | | | the CNS (root fer means \"to | | | carry) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Arachnoid Mater | The middle layer of the meninges | | | (from the Gréek word for spider, | | | because this tissue resembles a | | | spider web) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) | The division of the nervous | | | system that regulates involuntary | | | activities, controlling smooth | | | muscles, cardiac muscle, and | | | glands; the visceral nervous | | | system | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Axon | The fiber of a neuron that | | | conducts impulses away from the | | | cell body | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Brain | The nervous tissue contained | | | within the cranium; consists of | | | the cerebrum, diencephalon, | | | brainstem, and cerebellum (root: | | | encephal/o) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Brainstem | The part of the brain that | | | consists of the midbrain, pons, | | | and medulla oblongata | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Central Nervous System (CNS) | The brain and spinal cord | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Cerebellum | The posterior portion of the | | | brain dorsal to the pons and | | | medulla; helps to coordinate | | | movement and to maintain balance | | | and posture (cerebellum means | | | \"little brain\") (root; | | | cerebell/o) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Cerebral Cortex | The cerebrum\'s thin surface | | | layer of gray matter (the cortex | | | is the outer region of an organ) | | | (root: cortic/o) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Cerebrum | The large upper portion of the | | | brain; it is divided into two | | | hemispheres by the longitudinal | | | fissure (root: cerebrlo) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) | The watery fluid that circulates | | | in and around the brain and | | | spinal cord for protection | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Cranial Nerves | The 12 pairs of nerves that are | | | connected to the brain | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Dendrite | A fiber of a neuron that conducts | | | impulses toward the cell body | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Diencephalon | The part of the brain that | | | contains the thalamus, | | | hypothalamus, and pituitary | | | gland; located between the | | | cerebrum and the brainstem | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Dura Mater | The strong, fibrous outermost | | | layer of the meninges | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Efferent | Carrying away from a given point, | | | such as the motor neurons and | | | nerves that carry impulses away | | | from the CNS (root fer means \"to | | | carry) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Ganglion | A collection of neuron cell | | | bodies outside the CNS (plural: | | | ganglia) (roots: gangli/o: | | | ganglion/o) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Gray Matter | Unmyelinated tissue of the | | | nervous system | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Gyrus | A raised convolution of the | | | surface of the cerebrum (plural: | | | gyri) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Hypothalamus | The part of the brain that | | | controls the pituitary gland and | | | maintains homeostasis | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Interneuron | Any neuron located between a | | | sensory and a motor neuron in a | | | neural pathway, such as the | | | neurons that transmit impulses | | | within the CNS | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Medulla Oblongata | The portion of the brain that | | | connects with the spinal cord. It | | | has vital centers for control of | | | respiration, heart rate, and | | | blood pressure (root: medull/o). | | | Often called simply medulla | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Meninges | The three membranes that cover | | | the brain and spinal cord | | | (singular: meninx) (roots | | | mening/o, meninge/o) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Midbrain | The part of the brainstem between | | | the diencephalon and the pons; | | | contains centers for coordination | | | of reflexes for vision and | | | hearing | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Motor | Producing movement; describes | | | efferent neurons and nerves that | | | carry impulses away from the CNS | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Myelin | A whitish, fatty substance that | | | surrounds certain axons of the | | | nervous system | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Neuroglia | The support cells of the nervous | | | system also called glial cells | | | (from glia meaning glue | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Neuron | The basic unit of the nervous | | | system; a nerve cell | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Neurotransmitter | A chemical that transmits energy | | | across a synapse. Examples are | | | norepinephrine, acetylcholine, | | | serotonin, and dopamine | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Nerve | A bundle of neuron fibers outside | | | the CNS (root: neurlo) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Parasympathetic | The part of the automatic nervous | | | system that reverses the response | | | to stress and restores | | | homeostasis. It slows heart rate | | | and respiration rate and | | | stimulates digestive, urinary | | | ,and reproductive activities | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) | The portion of the nervous system | | | outside the CNS | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Pia Mater | The innermost layer of the | | | meninges | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Pons | A rounded area on the ventral | | | surface of the brainstemn; | | | contains fibers that connect | | | brain regions; adjective: pontine | | | (PON-ten | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Reflex | A simple, rapid, and automatic | | | response to a stimalus | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Root | A branch of a spinal nerve that | | | connects with the spinal cord; | | | the dorsal (posterior) root joins | | | the spinal cord\'s dorsal gray | | | horn; the ventral (anterior) root | | | joins the spinal cord\'s. ventral | | | gray (root: radicul/o) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Sensory | Pertaining to the senses or | | | sensation; describing afferent | | | neurons and nerves that carry | | | impulses toward the CNS | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Somatic Nervous System | The division of the nervous | | | system that controls skeletal | | | (voluntary) muscles | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Spinal Cord | The nervous tissue contained | | | within the spir.al column; | | | extends from the medulla | | | oblongata to the second lumbar | | | vertebra (root: myel/o) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Spinal Nerve | The 31 pairs of nerves that | | | connect with the spinal cord | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Sulcus | A shallow furrow or groove, as on | | | the surface of the cerebrum | | | (plural: | | | | | | sulci) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Sympathetic Nervous System | The part of the autonomic nervous | | | system that mobilizes a response | | | to stress, increases heart rate | | | and respiration rate, and | | | delivers more blood to skeletal | | | muscles | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Synapse | The junction between two neurons; | | | also the junction between a motor | | | neuron and a muscle or gland | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Thalamus | The part of the brain that | | | receives all sensory impulses, | | | except those for the sense of | | | smell, and directs them to the | | | proper portion of the cerebral | | | cortex (root: thalam/o) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Tract | A bundle of neuron fibers within | | | the CNS | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Ventricle | A small cavity, such as one of | | | the cavities in the brain in | | | which CSF is formed (root: | | | ventricul/o) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Visceral Nervous System | The autonomic nervous system | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | White Matter | Myelinated tissue of the nervous | | | system | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ II. **Roots for the Nervous System and the Spinal Cord** **Roots** **Meaning** **Example** **Definition of Example** ---------------------- --------------------------------------- --------------- ------------------------------------------------------------- neur/o, neur/i Nervous system, nervous tissue, nerve nuerotrophin Factor that promotes nerve growth (-troph/o means "nourish" gli/o neuroglia glial Pertaining to the neuroglia gangli/o, ganglion/o ganglion ganglioma Tumor of a ganglion mening/o, meninge/o Meninges Meningocele Hernia of the meninges myel/o Spinal cord (also bone marrow hematomyelia Haemorrhage ointo the spinal cord radicul/o Spinal nerve root Radiculopathy Any disease of a spinal nerve root III. **Roots for the Brain** +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Root** | **Meaning** | **Example** | **Definition of | | | | | example** | +=================+=================+=================+=================+ | encephal/o | brain | anencephaly | Absence of | | | | | brain | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | cerebr/o | Cerebrum | infracerebral | Below the | | | (loosely,brain) | | cerebrum | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | cortic/o | Cerebral | Corticospinall | Pertsining to | | | cortex, outer | | the cerebral | | cerebell/o | portion | | cortex and | | | | | spinal cord | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | thalam/o | Thalamus | Thalamotomy | Incision of the | | | | | thalamus | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | ventricul/o | Cavity, | Intrventricular | Within a | | | ventricle | | ventricle | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | medull/o | Medulla | Medullary | Pertaining to | | | oblongata (also | | the medulla | | | spinal cord) | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | psych/o | Mind | Psychogenic | Originating in | | | | | the mind | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | narc/o | Stupor, | Narcosis | Satae of stupor | | | unconsciousness | | induced by | | | | | drugs | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | somn/o, somn/i | Sleep | Somnolence | Sleepiness | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ IV. **Suffixes for the Nervous System** **Suffix** **Meaning** **Example** **Definition of Example** ------------ ----------------------------- -------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------- -phasia Speech Heterophasia Uttering words that are different from those intended -lalia Speech, babble Coprolalia Compulsive use of obscene words (copr- means "feces" -lexia Reading Bradyplexia Slowness in reading -plegia Paralysis Tetraplegia Paralysis of all four limbs -paresis Partial paralysis, weakness Hemiparesis Partial paralysis of one side of the body -lepsy Seizure Narcolepsy Condition marked by sudden episode of sleep -phobia Persistent, irrational fear Agoraphobia Fear of being in a public place ( from Greek agora, meaning "marketplace" -mania Excited state, obsession Megalomania Exaggerated self-importance "delisions of grandeur" +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Neurologic Disorders** | | +===================================+===================================+ | Alzhelmer disease (AD) | A form of dementia caused by | | | atrophy of the cerebral cortex; | | | presenile dementia | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Amyloid | A starch-like substance of | | | unknown composition that | | | accumulates in the brain in | | | Alzheimer and other diseases | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | aneurysm | A localized abnormal dilation of | | | a blood vessel that results from | | | weakness of the vessel wall; an | | | aneurysm may eventually burst | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Aphasia | Specifically, loss or defect in | | | speech communication (from Greek | | | phasis, meaning \"speech\"). In | | | practice, the term is applied | | | more broadly to a range of | | | language disorders, both spoken | | | and written. May affect ability | | | to understand speech (receptive | | | aphasia) or the ability to | | | produce speech (expressive | | | aphasia). Both forms are combined | | | in global aphasia | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | astrocytoma | A neuroglial tumor composed of | | | astrocytes | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | cerebral contusion | A bruise to the surface of the | | | brain following a blow to the