Macromolecules (Lect.1 Dr. Safa) PDF

Lect.1 / Dr. Safa / Introduction To The Macromolecules ﷽ What is Biochemistry ? - Biochemistry: Greek : Bios = life - It is branch of science deals with study of chemical basis of life. - That means chemistry of living ma>er at cellular and molecular level in living beings. Defini8on : - Biochemis...

Lect.1 / Dr. Safa / Introduction To The Macromolecules ﷽ What is Biochemistry ? - Biochemistry: Greek : Bios = life - It is branch of science deals with study of chemical basis of life. - That means chemistry of living ma>er at cellular and molecular level in living beings. Defini8on : - Biochemistry also called as biological chemistry or physiological chemistry is the study of chemical processes in the living organisms. - it can also be defined as the study of molecular basis of life.  Importance of biochemistry in PHARMACY and NURSING Biochemistry will help you to better understand Drug Constitution The half life of drugs Drug storage Drug metabolism Biochemical tests Introduc8on To Biochemistry : Biochemistry interacts with several disciplines: Cellular Biology, GeneDcs, Immunology, Microbiology, Pharmacology and Physiology. Biochemistry main goals: 1. What kinds of molecules are biomolecules? 2. What are the structure and chemistry of the biomolecules? 3. How do the biomolecules interact with each other? 4. How does the cell synthesise the biomolecules? 5. How is the energy store and use by the cell? 6. How do cells to organise the biomolecules and coordinate their ac8vi8es? 7. How are the mechanisms that allow the informa8on transfered? Cells May be Prokaryo8c or Eukaryo8c: Prokaryotes (Greek: pro-before; karyon-nucleus) include various bacteria. - Lack a nucleus or membrane-bound structures called organelles. Eukaryotes (Greek: eu-true; karyon-nucleus) include most other cells (plants, fungi, & animals) - Have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles  Molecule vrs Macromolecules A molecule/ Monomer? A group of two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds. E.g. H2O, Glucose, A macromolecule/Polymer? A long molecule made of monomers bonded together to form a polymer  Forming Macromolecules Formed from Condensation reactions called dehydration synthesis (removal of water)  Forming Monomers Hydrolysis reaction – Hydro = water; – lysis = break – Water is added and the lysis of the polymer occurs.  Memory Check  Monomer/ molecule ----- Atoms joined by covalent bonds  Polymer/ macromolecule---- Long unit made of monomer units  Polymers are formed from— Condensation / dehydration  Monomers are formed form--- Hydrolysis or rehydration  The four types main types macromolecules are........ DehydraDon synthesis leads to formaDon of: a. monomers. b. polymers. c. water and polymers. d. none of the above.  Four main Macromolecules  Carbohydrates - Organic molecules - all contain carbon  Lipids - May also contain hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and some other minor elements  Proteins  Nucleic acids - Organic Organic molecules - all contain carbon carbon - May also contain hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and some other minor elements Building Blocks Building block - Simple sugar - Amino acid - NucleoDde B B Anabolic Macromolecule - Polysaccharide - Protein (pepDde) - RNA or DNA - Fa>y acid - Lipid Catabolic Monomers Macromolecule Monomer Carbohydrates Monosaccharide Lipids Hydrocarbon chains Proteins Amino aicds Nucleic acids  CARBOHYDRATES Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules in nature. Carbohydrates are present in humans, animal tissues, plants and in micro-organisms. Carbohydrates are also present in tissue fluids, blood, milk, secretions and excretions of animals Carbohydrates: Sugars. Found in grains, fruits, vegetables, sugary items. Provide energy to body in from of glucose. Represented by the general formula (CH2O)n. RaDo of Carbon:Hydrogen:Oxygen is 1:2:1. Three main subtypes: 1. Monosaccharides 2. Disaccharides 3. Polysaccharides  CARBOHYDRATES Carbohydrates are defined as organic substances containing C, H, O  Where H and O are in the ratio 2:1 as found in H2O The term carbohydrate means a hydrate of carbon  Its general formular is Cn(H2O)n  Classification Of Carbohydrate CARBOHYDRATES MONOSACCHARIDES OLIGOSACCHARIDES POLYSACCHARIDES Cannot be hydrolysed On hydrolysis yield Two or more monomer units into smaller unit monosaccharides or Basic units of oligosaccharides They can be further carbohydrates hydrolysed to smaller units a. Classified based on a.Disaccharides a.Homo-polysaccharides the no. of C-atoms b.Trisachharides b.Hetro-polysaccharides b.Classified based on the type of functional group c.Tetrasachharides  Classification Of Monosaccharides Monosaccharides Based on the no of C-atoms Based on the functional group - Aldoses : - Trioses (C3H6O3) - Aldehyde –CHO e.g. Glyceraldehyde - Tetroses (C4H8O4) Glucose - Pentoses (C5H10O5) - Ketoses : - ketone ( C = O) - Hexoses (C6H12O6) e.g.Dihydroxyacetone - Heptoses (C7H14O7) , Structure of Common Monosaccharides Structure of Common Monosaccharides  Structure of Common Monosaccharides In aqueous solutions many monosaccharides form rings: Common Monosaccharides  Uses of Monosaccharides Glucose ( 50%) is hypertonic and provides a source of calories in a minimal volume of water. Glucose 50% is frequently used to restore blood glucose concentrations in the treatment of hypoglycaemia resulting from insulin excess or from other causes.  Uses of Monosaccharides Fructose: as an intravenous energy source for patients with: Hepatic disease, Uncontrolled diabetes mellitus Postoperative state.  Uses of Monosaccharides Dextrose is the name of a simple sugar chemically identical to glucose (blood sugar) that is made from corn. Dextrose is dissolved in solutions that are given intravenously used to increase a person’s blood sugar, which can be combined with other drugs, or. Dextrose is also available as an oral gel or tablet. Because dextrose is a “simple” sugar, the body can quickly use it for energy. Monosaccharide's of Biomedical Importance 24  OLIGOSACCHARIDES They are formed by condensation of 2-9 monosaccharides they are a.Disaccharides (sucrose, lactose) b.Trisaccharides (raffinose) c.Tetrasaccharides (stachyose) The smallest and the commonest oligosaccharides are Disaccharides  Disaccharides A disaccharide consists of 2 monosaccharide units (similar or dissimilar)held together by a glycosidic bond( links a sugar to another group) They are crysatalline, water soluble and sweet to taste.  Forming Disaccharides Glucose CH2OH (Dehydration/ condensation reaction) CH2OH CH2OH C O H C O H H H H H C OH H C C OH H C OH OH OH C C OH C C H OH H OH Maltose CH2OH CH2OH H C O H H C O H H H C OH H C C OH H C OH OH O OOH C OH Are joined by a C C C glycosidic linkage H H H OH H OH Glycosidic Bond This is a CONDENSATION reaction, where a water molecule is lost.  Common Disaccharides Monosaccharide Monosaccharide Disaccharide Glucose Glucose Maltose Glucose Fructose Sucrose Glucose Galactose Lactose Maltose Sucrose Galactose  Uses of Disaccharides Maltose can be converted from icodextrin which is used in dialysis solutions. Sucrose : It is often used in medications to impart a more pleasant taste to often unpalatable chemicals Iron Sucrose : is a medicine which is used in iron deficiency.  Polysaccharides (Glycans) - Made up of repeating units of monsaccharides held by glycosidic bonds - During its formation a water molecule is released at each condensation -Unlike sugars they are not sweet.  Polysaccharides (Glycans) - They are ideal as STORAGE AND AS STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS - They are of 2 types Homoglycans and Heteroglycans. - HOMOGLYCANS HETEROGLYCANS - -Made up of only 1 type of -Made up condensation of2 or more types of monosaccharides monosaccharide monomers agar, - Starch Chitin, - Glycogen peptidoglycans etc - Dextran  Polysaccharides (Glycans) Dextran : complex branched glucan Polysaccharide made of many glucose It is used medicinally as an antithrombotic, to reduce blood viscosity  Polysaccharides (Glycans)  Glycogen:  Storage of excess sugar in animals;  stored in liver and muscles  It is the animal short-term storage form of energy  Polysaccharides (Glycans) Chitin: Used as a structural material in  Arthropod exoskeleton  Fungal cell walls and  Surgical thread Extracellular Matrix- CHITIN - The hard exoskeleton of arthropods is composed of the polysaccharide chi8n. - Supports fungi structures. - ChiDn also contains nitrogen. Which of the following is not an extracellular matrix role of carbohydrates? A. Protect an insect's internal organs from external trauma. B. Prevent plant cells from lysing a[er the plant is watered. C. Maintain the shape of a fungal spore. D. Provide energy for muscle movement.  Polysaccharides (Glycans)  Starch or amylum: consists of a large number of glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds.  This polysaccharide is produced by most green plants as an energy store  Polysaccharides (Glycans) Cellulose : component of plant cell wall  Polysaccharides (Glycans) Inulin  Polymer of fructose i.e. fructosan  Found in bulbs, garlic, onion etc  Inulin is not readily metabolised in the human body and is readily filtered through the kidney. Hence used for testing kidney function  General Functions carbohydrates  STORAGE form of energy (starch and glycogen).  Main SOURCE of energy in the body( glycogen).  Excess carbohydrate is converted to fat.  General Functions carbohydrates  Structural basis of many organisms 1.Cellulose of plants 2. Exoskeleton of insects 3. Cell wall of microorganisms  General Functions carbohydrates  Components of several animal structure and plant structures 1.cartilage 2.tendons,  General Functions carbohydrates  Carbohydrates are components of blood group substances.  General Functions carbohydrates  Ascorbic acid, a derivative of carbohydrate is a water-soluble vitamin  General Functions carbohydrates  Derivatives of carbohydrates are components of antibiotics like erythromycin used in the treatment of infections caused by Gram- positive bacteria. It is similar in its effects to penicillin. Lipids  LIPIDS With the water, I say, Touch me not, To the tongue, I am tasteful, Within limits, I am dutiful, In excess, I am dangerous dr.aarif  Lipids Lipids are the chief concentrated storage form of energy forming about 3.5% of the cell content. Lipids are organic substances relatively insoluble in water soluble in organic solvents (alcohol, ether) dr.aarif  Lipids Lipids consist mostly of hydrocarbons (C , H, and O) Hydrophilic Head (“hydro”=water; “philic” = loving, Hydrophobic Tails ( Phobic- fearing) Polar Head Glycerol (hydrophilic) Fatty acid Fatty acid Non-Polar Tail (Hydrophobic)  LIPIDS Simple Derived Esters of fatty Esters of Esters of fatty acids acids and hydrocarbon alcohol and rings and long other groups hydrocarbon side chains Phospholipids Esters of long Steroids chain fatty acid Lipoproteins and long chain Esters of fatty alcohols acid and glycerol Glycolipids Terpenes  SIMPLE LIPIDS They are esters of fatty acids with alcohol. They are of 2 types : 1. Neutral or true fats : Esters of fatty acids with glycerol 2. Waxes : Esters of fatty acids with alcohol other than glycerol. Neutral / True fats/Triacylglycerol True fats are made up of C, H, & O but O is less A fat molecule is made up of 2 components : a)GLYCEROL b) FATTY ACIDS (1-3 mol, of same or diff long chained)  SIMPLE LIPIDS 1.Neutral / True fats Glycerol: A glycerol mol has 3 carbons each bearing a –OH group A fatty acid mol is an unbranched chain of C-atoms. It has a –COOH group at one end and a H bonded to almost all the C-atoms Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated  SIMPLE LIPIDS 1.Neutral / True fats/Triacylglycerol When a fatty acid attaches to glycerol it becomes a fat Fats have a structure that looks like a E Unsaturated fatty acid in a fat makes it an unsaturated fat Saturated fatty acid in a fat makes it a saturated fat  SIMPLE LIPIDS 1.Neutral / True fats Unsaturated fats : – one or more double bonds in the Oleic acid fatty acids allows for “kinks” in the tails cis double bond (b) Unsaturated fat and fatty acidcauses bending – liquid at room temp – most plant fats Saturated fats: No double bonds in fatty Stearic acid acid tails (a) Saturated fat and fatty acid solid at room temp most animal fats  Functions Simple Lipids 1.Neutral / True fats 1. Storage form of energy (triacylglycerol) in adipose tissues Adipose tissue is the major storage site for fat in the form of triglycerides in the skin Fat under skin serve as thermal insulator against cold.  Functions Simple Lipids 1.Neutral / True fats 1. Fat around kidney and heart serve as padding against injury. 2. Act as electric insulators in neurons as myelin sheath 3. Help in absorption of fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K)  SIMPLE LIPIDS WAXES Bee wax Lanolin Ear wax in ear Sebum in skin  SIMPLE LIPIDS 2. WAXES Lipids which are long chain saturated fatty acids and a long chain Saturated alcohol of high mol wt other than glycerol Example : 1.Bees wax : secretion of abdominal glands of worker honey bees 2.Shellac wax - from the lac insect kerria lacca 3.Lanolin or wool fat : Secretion of cutaneous glands and obtained from the wool of sheep 3. Sebum : secretion of sebaceous glands of skin 4. Cerumen : soft and brownish waxy secretion of the glands in the  SIMPLE LIPIDS Uses Waxes Lanolin is frequently used in protective baby skin treatment and as a treatment for sore nipples in breastfeeding mothers. Shellac wax is used in dental technology, in (partial) denture production.  COMPLEX LIPIDS They are derivatives of simple lipids having Protein additional group like N-Base Phosphate Polar Head  phosphate, (hydrophilic)  N2-base, Glycerol Protein etc. Fatty acid Fatty acid They are further divided into Non-Polar Tail (Hydrophobic) Phospholipids, Glycolipids, Lipoproteins.  COMPLEX LIPIDS They consists of Two fatty acids tails(long 1. Phospholipid chains of hydrogen and x carbon molecules) Alcohol Phosphate Polar Head Glycerol 'head.‘ (hydrophilic) Glycerol  The glycerol molecule is also attached to a phosphate group, Fatty acid Fatty acid Non-Polar Tail (Hydrophobic) The phosphate can be attached to an alcohol and another group  COMPLEX LIPIDS Function Phospholipids Structural component of cell membrane. Often occur with other molecules (e.g., proteins, glycolipids, sterols) in a bilayer.  COMPLEX LIPIDS 2. Glycolipid They are lipids with a carbohydrate attached. CEREBROSIDE are the most simplest form of glycolipids  COMPLEX LIPIDS Functions of Glycolipids Glycolipids are Structural components of plasma membrane  COMPLEX LIPIDS Functions of Glycolipids Glycolipids are components of blood group substances.  COMPLEX LIPIDS Functions of Glycolipids Glycoprotein serve as cell surface receptors.  COMPLEX LIPIDS 3. Lipoprotein They contain lipids and proteins in their molecules. They are main constituent of membranes. They are found in milk and Egg yolk. 5 types of lipoproteins : 1. chylomicrons 2. VLDL (Very Low density Lipoprotein) 3. LDL (Low density Lipoprotein) 4. HDL (High density Lipoprotein) 5. Free fatty acid albumin complex  COMPLEX LIPIDS Functions Lipoprotein  Transport of lipids  Transport of fat soluble vitamins  DERIVED LIPIDS They are derivatives obtained on the hydrolysis of the simple and complex lipids.e.g. steroids, terpenes. etc 1. Steroid The steroids do not contain fatty acids but are included in lipids as they have fat-like properties. They are made up of 4 fused carbon rings  DERIVED LIPIDS Functions of Steroids Cholesterol Hormone production. Cholesterol plays a part in producing hormones such as estrogen, testosterone, progesterone, aldosterone and cortisone Vitamin D production. Vitamin D is produced when the sun’s ultraviolet rays reach the human skin surface.  DERIVED LIPIDS Functions of Steroids Cholesterol Cell membrane support. Cholesterol plays a very important part in both the creation and maintenance of human cell membrene  DERIVED LIPIDS Functions of Terpenes Terpenes are a major component of essential oils produced by plants. They give fragrance and perform various therapeutic functions  Clinical significance of lipids Diseases associated with abnormal chemistry or metabolism of lipids-  Obesity  Atherosclerosis  Diabetes Mellitus  Hyperlipoproteinemia  Fatty liver  Lipid storage diseases 71  Clinical significance of lipids 1.Excessive fat deposits cause obesity. obesity is a risk factor for heart attack. 2. Abnormality in cholesterol and lipoprotein metabolism leads to atherosclerosis and cardiovascular diseases. 3. In diabetes mellitus, the metabolisms of fatty acids and lipoproteins are deranged, leading to ketosis 72  Clinical significance of lipids 4. Hyperlipidemia, hyperlipoproteinemia, or hyperlipidaemia involves abnormally elevated levels of any or all lipids and/or lipoproteins in the blood. It is the most common form of dyslipedemia (which includes any abnormal lipid levels). 5. Some fat in your liver is normal. But if it makes up more than 5%- 10% of the organ's weight, you may have fatty liver disease. 6. Lipid storage diseases are a group of inherited metabolic disorders in which harmful amounts of fatty materials (lipids) accumulate in various tissues and cells in the body 73  Discussion Question 1. How will my knowledge about carbohydrate and lipids structure and function enrich my work as a health professional.(outline 5points) 2. What are the uses of carbohydrates and lipids in medicine.(5 uses)  Proteins Proteins consist of C, H, O and N (S & P) Polymers (polypeptides) of amino acids joined by peptide bonds levels of Proteins Structure Protein : Amino Acid - Amino acids are the monomers that make up proteins (polymer) - Fundamental structure: Central carbon atom (α -carbon) Amino group (-NH) Carboxyl group (-COOH) Hydrogen Side chain (R-group) Protein : Enzymes Enzymes - catalysts (speed up) in reacDons Specific enzyme for specific substrate. Types of enzymes: - Catabolic - breakdown substrates - Anabolic - build more complex molecules Protein (enzyme) that catalyzes conversion of Maltose to Glucose  General Functions of Proteins 1. Transport of substances in the body. E.g. Haemoglobin transports oxygen. 2. Enzymes which catalyze chemical reactions in the body 3. Defence function.e.g Immunoglobulins(antibodies) 4. Hormones are proteins. They control many biochemical events. Example: Insulin.  Functions of Protiens 5. Contraction of muscles. E.g Muscle proteins(actin and myosin). 6. Gene expression. They control gene expression and translation.E.g Histones. 7. Nutrient and storage.E.g albumen of egg, Casein of milk , Ferritin that stores iron.  Medical And Biological Functions 8. Proteins act as buffers. E.g Plasma proteins. 9. Proteins function as anti-vitamins. E.g. Avidin of egg. 10.Proteins are infective agents.e.g Prions which cause mad cow disease are proteins.  Medical And Biological Functions 10. Some toxins are proteins E.g Enterotoxin of cholera microorganism. 11. Some proteins provide structural strength and elasticity to the organs and vascular system. E.g Collagen and elastin of bone matrix and ligaments. 10. Some proteins are components of structures of tissues. E.g α-keratin is present in hair and epidermis Nucleic Acids Nuclei Acids Nucleic acids - consDtute the gene8c material of living organisms Two types of nucleic acid: - DeoxyriboNucleic Acid (DNA) - RiboNucleic Acid (RNA) Loca8on of nucleic acids: - Nucleus of eukaryoDc cells - Mitochondria - Chloroplasts - ProkaryoDc cells (not membrane enclosed) Nuclei Acid: Monomer - DNA and RNA consist of monomers known as nucleo8des. - NucleoDdes consist of three parts: 1. Nitrogenous base 2. Pentose sugar 3. One or more phosphate groups Nucleic Acids structural Components Nuclei Acid: Polymer - The sugar and phosphate of separate nucleo8des link together in a phosphodiester bond, forming a polymer. - Nitrogenous bases are stacked in the interior. - The strands of the helix run in opposite direcDons. - Each base from one strand interacts via hydrogen bonding with a base from the opposing strand.  Building the nucleic acid polymer ester bond Phosphodiester bond ester bond Nucleotides Nucleotidesare arejoined joinedtogether togetherby by Phosphodiester Phosphodiesterbonds bonds  Nucleic Acids Types 1. DNA ( Deoxyribonucleic acid) – double stranded (DNA helix) – can self replicate – makes up genes which code for proteins is passed from one generation to another 1. RNA ( Ribonucleic acid) – single stranded – functions in actual synthesis of proteins coded for by DNA – is made from the DNA template molecule SUMMARY OF THE KEY FEATURES OF DNA & RNA DNA RNA Function Carries genetic information Involved in protein synthesis Location Remains in the nucleus Leaves the nucleus Structure Double helix Usually single-stranded Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose Pyrimidine Cytosine, thymine Cytosine, uracil Purines Adenine, guanine Adenine, guanine  Functions of nucleic acid in the cell 1. They are involved in the storage, transfer and expression of genetic information. 2. Some nucleic acids acts as enzymes and coenzymes. E.g. RNA, act as catalyst and RNA is coenzyme for telomerase which seals ends of chromosomes. 3. DNA exhibits structural polymorphism. It assumes several forms depending on certain conditions. Several DNA variants are known. NucleoDde of DNA may contain …………. : A. ribose, uracil, and a phosphate group B. deoxyribose, uracil, and a phosphate group C. deoxyribose, thymine, and a phosphate group. D. ribose, thymine, and a phosphate group. Thank You