Document Details

FavoriteSetting

Uploaded by FavoriteSetting

Universität Koblenz

Tags

literary theory literature literary analysis narrative

Summary

This document provides a general introduction to literary studies, covering topics like literary theory, genre classification, and representation in literature. The content likely aims to teach and define literary concepts for beginning scholars and students.

Full Transcript

MODULE 1 Literature General Introduction Why study literature? Literary studies help us understand the central role played by storytelling & imagination in life and society expand our own language competences understand how others use language understamd other perspectives (fro...

MODULE 1 Literature General Introduction Why study literature? Literary studies help us understand the central role played by storytelling & imagination in life and society expand our own language competences understand how others use language understamd other perspectives (from different people, social groups, times, cultures,…) What does Literary Studies entail? What is literature? traditional association of the term with written texts but there is also Oral literature (Kratzer). Audiovisual literature What does lierature do/ What is it for? -> 4 famous models 1. Aristotle: mimesis -> literature as imitation of reality, factual truth vs. general/ fundamental truth (mimetic model) 2. Horace: pleasure and/ or profit -> aesthetic experience: emotional and imaginative, emotions: sympathy, deligth (in beauty), amusement, suspense, …, intellectual stimulation: reflection on language, art,… (pragmatic model) 3. William Wordsworth: authors subjectivity -> lierature= authors subjective expression of emotions/ imagination “spontaneous and true expression of inner self” (expressive model) 4. Edgar Allan Poe: art for arts sake -> lierature= aesthetic object with no reference to reality; text is to be seen as an object in itself, author, context, effect on reader have to be ignored (aesthetic model) Literary criticism Usually informed by theory, but more practical: focusing on particular texts, analyzing how they work, how they create meaning through structure/ composition), interpreting their meaning (what do they mean/ which ideas do they represent) sometimes also trying to evaluate their quality/ revelance 1 way of reading: hermeneutics our pre-knowledge/ presuppositions form the basis for understanding new information But: new information can also add to & change our previous knowledge -> dialogue understanding of whole and part (drama-acts; sentence-word) are interdependent Literary history reconstructs how literature has developed & changed over time conceptualized periods, boundaries and transitions Traces how certain authors/ works became influential & why (canon formation) studies interaction of literature with wider social cultural contexts Literary genres: system of groups of texts defined by sets of conventions/ codes (like cognitive schemas) guide both the writing and reading of texts change across history Literature as representation we analyse literary texts as specific representations of people/ things/ situations/ problems/ …; we don’t equate them with the things themselves -> we don’t analyse literature in order to find out what life was really like for this or that group of people in a certain time and place in history — BUT: we can ask how the lives of these people are represented in a piece of literature & how text-specific feature and generic/ aesthetic conventions inform/ modify this representation we analyse literary representations as culturally produced und culturally productive Representations are not only informed by their specific socio- historical environment, they in turn contribute to the specific formation of this socio-historical environment Prose Narratuve Why stories? Shaping and interpreting experience: selecting and combining information, finding meanings, explanations Constructing identities over time: individual or collective memory, archive Developing alternative visions of reality: counter-factual, past, present or future Sharing structured information and opinion Offering imaginative participation, positions of identification or resistance story= what is told discourse= form: how something is told ; by whom and to whom story= sequence of events e.g. the queen died and then the king died plot= the logical connection between events e.g the queen died and then the king died of grief Oral storytelling introduces the story by mentioning what it is about, specifies who takes part in it where and when, talks about the development of a conflict, its evaluation, its resolution, marks that the story has come to an end and takes the listener back to the here and now. Narrative communication in Alice Childress: “The Health Card” implied author: author-image based on the characteristics of a text – what individual readers come to think of the author while reading his/ her text Implied reader: parallel to the implied author, the implied reader is the addressee that an author had in mind while writing a text Narrators… tell a story to someone in a particular way (= discourse) describe characters and objects, setting, etc. tell or show characters’ speech and thought tell = direct; show = indirect report actions and events comment on the story world explicit value judgements (overt narrator); implicit evaluations (indirect) Communication between Narrator and Narratee Aspects of analysis: 1. Who speaks to whom? 2. Which position does the narrator have inside or outside the world of the story? (involved or detached?) 3. What does the narrator speak about, in which order and in which way? (selection of focus, sequence of information, evaluation) Discourse two major approaches 1. Franz Karls STANZEL’s concept of narrative situations 2. Gérard GENNETE’s model of a narrative discourse STANZEL’s three narrative situations 1. first-person 2. authorial 3. figural First-person narrator similar to “ordinary” story-telling in real world involved in the world of the story filtered: eyes and values of the narrator-character important: Does the present, narrating I identify with or criticise the past, experiencing I? Is the narrator reliable? rise in 16th & 17th century: context: Puritanism: self-inspection; empiricism: focus on individual experience; capitalism: idealization of individual homo oeconomicus (self-interest = welfare of society) invites readerly identification limitation of point of view – limitation of validity I-as-protagonist: narrator= centre of the story I-as-witness: minor character and observer narrating-I & experiencing- I: Narrating I might differ from experiencing I in maturity, distanced view, memory…. Both narrating & experiencing I are important for first-person narration. Temporal & cognitive distance influences quality of the narrative. Authorial narrator Godlike panoramic view from an Olympic position outside & above the story world: omnipresent and omniscient (insight into subconscious, future) detached from the characters & their concerns (comment, evaluation) mediates between the world of the characters and that of the reader via intrusive comments and reader addresses takes the first-person pronoun “I” – not to be mixed up with the first- person narrator (= character in story, limited perspective) world appears as transparent (narrator can see everything) world seems to be completely comprehensible (everything can be explained as narrator has access to everything) Often linked to optimistic view of world context: mid-18th- to 19th-century belief that world is ruled by divine laws and providence limitation of divine perspective Figural narrative situation character’s perspective in the third person (personale Erzählsituation) readers get the impression that they share the thoughts, feelings & perceptions of a character as he/she experiences these. readers share limitations of filtered information looks like a third person narrator of the authorial narrative, yet ‘only’ conveys the limited perspective of a character the character (whose perspective we share) functions as a reflector of the fictional world (through the eyes of the character, ‘immediacy’) increasing use towards the end of the 19th century context: decline of trust in authorities as omnipotent and reliable advances in psychological research (mental processes) emergence of impressionism in painting Authorial into figural Authorial narrator can yield his prominent position of telling & commenting to… 1. a scenic presentation of dialogue & action, or 2. the presentation of the world from a character’s point of view as in figural narrative. Criticism of Stanzel simple, comprehensive, and elegant model but fuzzy use of point of view misleading terms: authorial “I” can be misunderstood to suggest it is identical with the real author; authorial “I” takes an “external perspective” and is classified as “third-person narrative” – “his” position lies outside the story world internal perspective of first-person and figural narrator: misleading term as it is not restricted to psyche but perspective from within fictional world figural narrative: no narrator in the shape of a character but insight into the 'figure' of a third person GENETTE'S MODEL of Narrative Discourse Distinction between voice & focalisation voice: Who speaks from which position in which part of the narrative? -> narrators focalisation: Who sees or perceives something? -> focaliser/s Voice: Who speaks? covert narrator: voice, anonymous, implicit; reader has task of evaluating the story; showing rather than telling overt narrator: mediator in the discourse; comments guide the reader’s understanding; telling rather than showing; sometimes very intrusive From which position? Heterodiegetic narrator outside: the heterodiegetic narrator is ‘other’/different in the sense of being elsewhere, outside the narrative world; does not belong to the world of the characters; third-person narrator Homodiegetic narrator inside: the homodiegetic narrator is ‘the same’ in the sense of being part of the characters’ world; “I” who belongs to the story world; [= Stanzel’s first-person narrative situation] Autodiegetic narrator: tells a story where s/he is not only a character, but the main character (e.g. telling own life story) Framing narratives extra- and intradiegetic narratives can shed light on each other extradiegetic narrator may reflect on narrative & guide reader's understanding of intradiegetic narrative Reliability of narrators narrator can be reliable or unreliable detached heterodiegetic narrator -> often trustworthy involved homodiegetic narrator -> often questionable (omissions, distortion?) criteria: correspondence, coherence, consistency Focalisation Narrator tells story & talks about character in 3rd person (“she”); narrator not part of story-world. But narrator locates perspective within a character; we get into the character’s thoughts and ‘see’ the situation through her eyes. I.e. she is the focaliser. this type of focalization is called internal focalisation Internal focalisation May vary between: 1. fixed focalisation 2. variable focalisation: different perspectives on different events 3. multiple focalisation: different perspectives on same event In addition to internal focalisation, there are also: external focalisation: information of characters’ external behaviour, excluding feelings and thoughts. zero focalisation: perspective can’t be attributed to someone in particular or has no restrictions and can vary The uses of focalisation The type/s of focalisation used in a story has an effect, e.g. concerning: the channeling & colouring of information selection & combination of perspectives that converge in one monologic view or fall apart in dialogic texts Narrative representation of character’s words and thoughts differs according to narrator’s involvement: more control of narrator -> less direct insight into character (& vice versa) control of narrator: “telling” direct insight into character’s thoughts etc.: “showing” Narrative report narrative report of thought/ indirect thought (psychonarration) representation of character’s thoughts in narrator’s style (narrator’s choice of words, comments) certain distance to character marked by tagged phrases introduced by character’s name/pronoun (“she said”) (Free) direct thought: Interior monologue & stream of consciousness Free direct representation of thought: 'quotes' character's mental process if it is given in fragmented, incomplete sentences, seemingly ‘random’ bits of thoughts & impressions, we speak of stream of consciousness Free indirect discourse dual voice: mix of narrator and character between telling (direct) and showing (indirect) mediation marked by transformation of 1st person into 3rd person transformation of present/ future tense into conditional Time Story & Discourse Time 1. Ellipsis: omits information, e.g. to create suspense 2. Summary: telescopes events of minor importance 3. Scene: time of description corresponds to time of events 4. Stretch: expands short events for comic or symbolic purposes 5. Pause: interruption of events, e.g. for a detailed description of the setting or a narrator’s comment Temporal order A simple oral story begins with the beginning, arranges the events in chronological sequence and ends with the ending. Non-chronological order: Flashforward (Vorausdeutung) flashback (Rückgriff) associative digressions (Abschweifungen) anachronic (= non-chronological) combination of diverse stories Beginning of a narrative ab ovo= Narrative starts “at the beginning” (lit. “from the egg”) of the plot & then moves chronologically through a sequence of events to the tale's conclusion in medias res= narrative starts “in the middle of things” proceeds to explain earlier events through the characters' dialogue, memories or flashbacks Story Characterization Characters can be defined by (telling) names appearance character traits internal activities (perceptions, emotions and thoughts) external activities (speech and action) important theorist: Manfred Pfister -> Different types of characterisation: authorial, direct: telling names, description authorial, indirect: correspondence/contrast to other characters figural, direct: by the self or others figural, indirect: manner/quality of voice, language, behaviour Types of characters: flat or round static or dynamic transparent or opaque psychological or trans-psychological Characters & Character Constellation Can be analyzed according to: social structure (generation, gender, class, race, etc.) structure of perspectives (development and conflicts, concepts & values of characters & narrators) aesthetic structure of similarity & contrast (overlaps with the criteria above) Circumstances Time and place when and where the story happens, events not caused by characters (e.g., weather, accident) Realistic location, subjective and/or symbolic space With regard to space, we can look at: boundaries (= real or symbolic barriers) include and exclude individuals or groups (race, gender, class), e.g., private and public space thresholds & liminal spaces (enable contact, development) contact zones & transitions or transformations Both physical & imagined spaces: imagination transcends external limitations Action Action ending closure: characters achieve their goals, resolve conflicts or die; poetic justice? open ending: the conflict remains unresolved; how would it go on & what does it mean? Suspense Five stages: 1. open question or conflict 2. confusion about decision 3. two equally probable answers or opposite outcomes 4. blocking of the resolution 5. decision and decrease of suspense Realism and Illusion belief in probable fictional world 'imitating' reality making of story is hidden concrete relevant details perspectives clearly attributable fictional world is coherent and meaningful whole Metafiction anti-illusionist and self-referential -> implicit: foregrounding style or form -> explicit: fiction commenting on its own construction “fiction about fiction” – foregrounding of the discourse (‘how’) of storytelling Short stories resemble oral stories in (often/relatively) small size, flexible subject matter, style and form often concentrate on one character, action, place, and time often select a particular moment of reversal or insight tend to be less explicit than oral stories and therefore demand great attention to details, images, beginnings and endings Novels: 'Loose and Baggy' larger number of characters, strands of action, locations (sometimes panoramic) comprehensive descriptions of both external settings and “internal experientiality” multiple perspectives (monologic versus dialogic) many potential discourses as reference systems (religion, economics, gender, psychology, biology, etc.) Poetry What is poetry? Percy Bysshe Shelley: major English Romantic poet & literary critic: “Poetry lifts the veil from the hidden beauty of the world, and makes familiar objects be as if they were not familiar” Literary critic Jonathan Culler argues that (despite what is often thought) ‘the poetic' is NOT really defined by "special properties of the language of poems” (since there are many counter-examples where poems use ordinary language, or texts which are not poems use special ‘poetic’ sound patterns, metaphors…) but rather by "the expectations with which one approaches lyric poetry, the conventions which govern its possible modes of signification different kinds of poetry emotional philosophical/political/religious reflection narrative poetry e.g. epics, medieval chivalric romances, poetic fables Panegyrics, satire -> not all poems are emotional & not all are short / lyrical How to analyse a poem 1. Construct the poems internal communicative situation 2. Look for the main themes, and the way these are represented (isotopies, main themes, figurative language) Metaphors not just in poetry, but a key feature of our ordinary conceptual system/ way of thinking/ acting human thought processes are largely metaphorical conceptual metaphors vs. metaphorical expressions Conceptual metaphor: TIME IS MONEY metaphorical expression: You are wasting my time. This gadget will save hours. How do you spend your time? That flat tire cost me an hour. I have invested time -> Time as a limited resource, as valuable BUT: concept depends on culture, time and also language! Poetic form Since poetry is traditionally meant to be read aloud: importance of rhythm & meter sound (phonological forms) all oral speech has a rhythm (determined by where you pause to breath, on which syllable/ a word is normally stresses, on syntax,… -> but it’s normally irregular) Poetry often has a regular sequence of stresses/unstressed syllables in lines of verse -> meter (AmE) types of meter free verse: doesn’t have a regular meter; similar to everyday language & prose Prose poetry looks like a prose text at first glance but uses poetic style, rhetorical figures, rhythm, etc. Sound: Rhyme (Perfect) rhyme: Identity of the last stressed vowel and its subsequent letters in two or more words masculine rhyme: based in last syllable only: mind-behind feminine rhyme: based on two syllable: toasting - roasting identical rhyme same word is repeated , sometimes with different meanings rhyme includes consonants before vowels: know - no imperfect rhyme also called halfrhyme/ impure/ slant/ oblique rhyme consonance= identical consonants ‘rhyme’: loads - lids assonance= identical vowels ‘rhyme’: foam - moan eye-rhyme spelling looks as if it rhymes, but doesn’t rhyme when spoken: prove - love end-rhyme (at end of line) couplet (aabb) alternating/ cross rhyme (abab) envelope/ enclosing rhyme (abba) tail rhyme (abcabc) internal rhyme occurs within the line, not at the end Alliteration words within a line are linked by their initial letter Types of Stanzas couplet: 2 lines are linked by end rhyme tercet: 3 lines (triplet= 3 lines linked by end rhyme) quatrain: 4 lines, often with alternate rhyme Types of poems Narrative poetry: example subcategories epic often an heroic/ supernatural figure & superhuman feats; often very long ballad much shorter, traditionally sung, tells story through dialogue/action folk ballads, street ballads, literary ballads Lyric poetry: example subcategories ode ceremonial purposes, meditative reflection, formal, serious in style/tone, subject matter solemn elegy laments love or death pastoral celebrates simplicity & idyllic pleasure of country life confessional poetry speaker ‘confesses’: revelation of personal experience, open dramatic monologue speaker who assumes a particular role, addresses to audience often talks about a critical moment in life reveals characteristics/ personality of speaker dramatic effect Sonnet -> 2 sub-categories Haiku japaneses form of poetry, non-rhyming, very brief (3 lines), 17 syllables in total (5-7-5), focus on one image (often from nature) Often puns or associations play a role aim: trigger emotions in audience Drama What is a drama? any text meant to be performed on stage ‘script’ dramatic text: primary text: direct communication among characters in dialogue secondary text: dramatis, personae, stage directions, etc. Dramatic Communication Theatrical Communication Theatrical sign system Space & Locale fictional locale on stage (setting, symbolic meaning) stage design lighting sound effects & music special effects semantic space: boundaries define territories -> barriers/boundaries or thresholds that include and exclude characters -> relation between spaces= meaningful: front - back, up - down, centre - margin, real - imagined enacted space: the positions & movements of characters Congruent awareness spectators & characters = same level of information Discrepant Awareness spectators & characters = different level of information spectators: genre, title of play, prologue, etc. initial/ isolated exposition: information at the beginning of the play integrated exposition: information revealed bit by bit in the course of the action suspense: spectators may share certain characters’ knowledge, concealed from others for good or bad purpose dramatic irony: difference between external & internal communicationm characters not aware of implications of what s/he says or does but the spectators are intentional irony: expresses opposite of what is meant Verbal communication - speech on stage dialogue/ polylogue line-by-line exchange/ stichomythia monologue soliloquy Functions of Speech usually no narrator characters’ speeches present retrospectives summarize actions foreshadow events comment upon events Analysis of speech content form function by itself relationship to others length, style, etc. -> characterization? hierarchies? Dialogue: Functions expressive: revealing emotions, attitudes, motives referential: characterising self and others, exchanging information, negotiating meanings and realtionships phatic: maintaining contact appellative: asking, demanding metalingual: commenting on speech poetic: foregrounding language Speech: Style style reveals status, character, relationship colloquial or formal language limited or sophisticated vocabulary and syntax incoherent or coherent utterances and dialogue Shakespeare’s stage aristocrats = blank verse (iambic pentameter) servants = prose -> difference in style = difference in status Speech and Silence pauses or gaps in or between speeches: inability to find the right words unwillingness to disclose information possible reasons 1. fear of response 2. manipulation of interpretation 3. psychological pressure Speech and Action speech motivates action speech itself as action: promises, apologies, requests, curses, condemnations (performative speech acts) verbal struggles: battle of wits, battle of the sexes Speech: Perspectives speech = perspective on something character perspective in relation to other perspectives corresponding or contrastive difference in quality of perspective (persuasive?) and amount of speech of character - hierarchies of significance, guidance of audience meaning of play: Development of individual perspectives; relationship between perspectives: consistent, coherent, changing? Various perspectives in a play can share or move towards similar basic assumptions and value judgements in a monologic way (consensus) or contradict each other in a dialogic way (Mikhail Bakhtin, ideology in Literary Theory) (discrepancy) Dialogue: Analysis content (what), manner (how) and function (why) of an individual speech by itself and in relationship to the preceding and following speeches by the same character and others How often and long does someone speak? (length, allocation of turns) (authority, gender, situation) Who interrupts whom ano how often? (power, aggression, excitement…) norms for co-operative communication 1. speakers should respect each other 2. tell the truth 3. give the adequate amount of information 4. and say in a comprehensible way 5. what is relevant to the matter at hand (Grice) violation of these rules: uncertainty, incompetence, alienation, domination or deception Line-by-line exchange/ stichomythia specia, very quick turn-taking: only one line at each character’s turn can convey passionate interaction but also reticence & alienation can create tension & conflict can also create humour: quick, witty replies (repartee) Monologue extended speech by a character addresses other characters or spectators information on on-/off-stage situation, past events, etc. expresses a charcter’s inner life to the audience Soliloquy A speech delivered by a character alone on stage (solus) reveals a character’s thoughts, feelings or motives to the audience Character & Action Dramatic Figures: Construction flat or round characters static or dynamic character transparent or opaque characters psychological or trans-psychological character Characterization kind: direct (explicit) vs. indirect (implicit) source: authorial vs. figural explicit: 1. presenting a character directly 2. authorial: in stage directions, telling names 3. figural: characters own description of him-/herself 4. figural: comments by other characters (before, during, after entry, gossip! implicit 5. presenting a character indirectly in authorial way via similarities & contrasts to other characters 6. indirectly through character’s way of speaking and acting Character & Performance The actor’s performance of a characters is marked by: the manner and timing of entrances and exits the external appearance body language the characteristic vocal quality Characters: Relationships characters defined by position within the constellation of figures often marked in dramatis personae (social position, generation, family relationships, gender, …) performance unfolds a characters relationships to others in changing configurations in sequence of scenes Relationships pairing:husband-wife, father-son, lover-beloved, master-servant,… protagonist vs anatagonist character and confidant/e function: one character serves as another’s foil in terms of similarities and differences Conflicts & struggles can manifest themselves in dialogue, action & plot internal conflict within a characters mind (torn between different emotions, wishes & loyalties) external conflict between characters (due to different wishes, views and Interests) characters can also struggle against adverse circumstances (povert, illness, …) Time short performance time (cf. novel) forces playwright to select, condense, etc. elements of the story A) temporal coherence, linear chronology B) anachronic order ab ovo: from the very beginning of the story - early point of attack in medias res: in the middle of story - late point of attack in ultimas res: at the end retrospective foreshadowing Structure story: chronological sequence of actions, events plot: causal and other kinds of meaningful relationships, segmentation phases, temporal and spatial regrouping, etc. 1. main plot 2. sub-plot: often highlights and accentuates elements of main plot acts: larger units scenes: smaller units, marked by changing character configurations & situations Aristotelian/ Closed form: coherence (unity of time& space, linear action) vs. open form: violates unities of time& space, has no-linear action Closed form- the 3 Unities unity of time: performances time= close to fictional time unity of space: one place linear action: coherence, logical connection thought to be more convincin: Illusion of reality, mimesis (verisimilitude/ Plausibilität) Neoclassical demand Structure: beginning, middle, end pyramid model by Gustav Frextag 1863 exposition: presents characters, setting, basic situation rising action: complications, conflicts, suspense, crisis climax: high point of tension falling action: winding down of tension, conflict, … resolution/ dénouement: resolving of conflicts structure doesnt have to be symmetric, conflict can rise at the beginning, climax can happen earlier, …! Open Form of Drama violates the three unities scenes: episodic, fragmentary, loosely connected fragmented action ending: no definite solution Dramatic (Sub-)Genres (Aristotle) More on Tragedy serious & heroic action protagonists fortune turns from good to bad (due to error of judgement) Elevated characters (high-status protagonists): reversal of fortune seems even more tragic -> greater loss recognition of mistakes or guilt compounds effect of loss mourning of the dead More on Comedy often flat types & stereotyped characters (stock characters) -> reveal shortcomings, make mistakes, etc. but these are not as serious as in tragedy stock elements: cross-dressing, deception, mistaken identities… quarrels: verbal (battle of the sexes) Ending: harmony established (marriage for worthy protagonists; poetic justice) romantic comedy: love as central subject, conflict, happy-ending satiric comedy: flaws and vices are ridiculed comedy of manners: satiric look at world of sophisticated taste and manners Tragicomedy: combination of serious conflicts/ topics with light-hearted elements Elements of epic communication in drama ones which also appear in Aristotelian drama: title of the play stage directions prologue (Rome& Juliet) Epilogue One that doesn’t occur in Aristotelian drama but does occur in epic drama: narrator figure Theatre of the Absurd depicts absurd world (things that does not make sense) dialogues are often senseless- scepticism about language as means of communication tragicomic characters - underline absurdity open form: loose, fragmentary scenes that are not coherent Metadrama self-reflexive about its own genre discussion of nature & function of drama/ theatre Theatre history & stage forms Medieval theatre performed in publicn platforms or pageants (carts) no realistic locale but word scenery Renaissance: Apron stage no realism of space, word scenery actors close to audience, especially the groundlings shared world, but seperate ranks Indoor theatre; proscenium stage more elaborate setting stronger separation of stage and audience actors acted in front of setting indoor theatre; picture-frame stage invisible fourth wall separates stage from spectators illusion of reality (technical equipment) actirs behave as if there were no audience Contemporary theatre more experimental also uses other stage forms (e.g. thrust stage) other places for performance (pubs, no stage) preference: closer contact with audience -> more involvement of audience

Use Quizgecko on...
Browser
Browser