Evolution of Language PDF

**Evolution of language** - **Language change** - - - - - - - - - **Differences between languages** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Languages of the world** - - - - - - - - **Language situation in the globali...

**Evolution of language** - **Language change** - - - - - - - - - **Differences between languages** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Languages of the world** - - - - - - - - **Language situation in the globalized world** **By Abram de Swaan** - - - - - - - **Germanic languages** - - - - - **Balto-Slavic languages** - - - - - - - - - - **History of English** - - - - - - - - - - - - **English language** - - - - - - - - - - - - Historical reasons of present-day English distribution (British Empire, 1583-1997)The\_British\_Empire\_Anachronous.png Historical reasons of present-day distribution (American Empire, 1898-now)  **Polish language** - - - - - - - - - - **History of Polish** - - - - - - **Dialects of Polish** - - - **International Phonetic Alphabet** - - - - **Phonetics** - - - - **Types of phonetics:** - - - **Phonology** - - - - **Phones and phonemes** - - - - **Types of speech sounds** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Consonants in Polish** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Voicelessness and voicing** - - **Voicing in English and Polish** - - - **Progressive versus regressive voicing** - - - **Voicing agreement** - - - **Double consonants** - - **Vowels** - - - - **Syllables** - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Types of words** - - - - **Characteristics of vowels** - - - - **Vowels in English** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Vowels in Polish** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Diphtongs** - - - - - - - - - - **Triphthongs** - - - - - **Vocalic and consonantal languages** - - - - **Dialects of British English vis-à-vis rhoticity** - - - - - - From RP, through EE, to Cockney  **Dialects of English** - - - - - **Some Polish dialectal phonetic differences** - - - - - **What is morphology?** - - - - **Morpheme** - - - - **Types of morphemes** - - - - **Types of bound morphemes** - - **The parts of word** - - - - - - - - - **Analytic and synthetic languages** - - - - **Onomatopoeia** - - - - - **Reduplication** - - - - - - **Affixation** - - - - - **Compounding** - - - - - - - **Clipping** - - - - - - - **Back-formation** - - - **Conversion** - - - - **Acronymy** - - - - **Abbreviation** - - - - **Blending** - - - - - - brexit cyborg wiksa sebix flota email sexting grubo kablować odjaniepawlić emoticon smog kminić kebs vlog brunch nieogar janusz sitcom breathalyzer propsować melanż textpectation glamazon adaśki atencjusz doggolingo biopic dzban bezbek **Inflection** - - - - - - - - **Grammatical tense** - - **Verb inflections for tense in English** - - - - **Verb inflections for tense in Polish** - - - - **Grammatical aspect** - - - - **Grammatical mood** - - - - - **Verbal nouns** - - **Summary of verb inflections in English** - - - - **Loanwords** - **Loanwords in English** - - - - - **Polish borrowings in English** - - - - - - - **Loanwords in Polish** - - - - - - - - - **False friends** - - - **Polish-English false friends** Polish English --------------- -------------- Dom publiczny Public house dywan Divan ewentualnie Eventually fart Fart facet Facet hełm Helm no No Polish English -------------- -------------- patetyczny Pathetic plaster Plaster prezerwatywa Preservative renta Rent pensja Pension obskurny Obscure **Conjugation versus declension** - - - - **Declension in English and Polish** - - - - - - - - **Noun inflections for case** - - - - - **Case** - - - **Number** - - **Noun inflections for number** - - - - - - - - - - **Noun inflections for gender** - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Grammatical agreement and gender** - - - - **Adjective inflections** - - - - - **Fixed word order** - - - **Free word order** - - - **Word order in English and Polish** - - *Peter hit Jacob* *Piotr uderzył Jakuba* ------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------ *Jacob hit Peter* - change of meaning *Jakub uderzył Piotra* *Hit Peter Jacob* - ungrammatical *Uderzył Jakuba Piotr* *Hit Jacob Peter* - ungrammatical, change of meaning *Uderzył Piotr Jakuba* **Word order in contrast** - - - - **Syntax in contrast: articles** - - - - **Syntax in contrast: subject** - - - - - - - - **Independent and dependent clause** - - **Complementizer deletion** - - - - **Relative clause (Zdanie względne)** - - - - - **Relative clauses in contrast** - - - - - - - - **Deletion of relative pronouns** - - - **Contrasts: conjunctions** - - - - - **Questions** - - - - - - **Contrasts: yes-no questions** - - - - - - - **Contrasts: wh-questions** - - - **Contrasts: tag questions** - - - - **Contrasts: passive** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Existential sentences** - - - **Semantics** - - **Types of semantics** - - - **Meaning and its aspects** - - - - - - - - - - **Reference** - - - - - **Cross-linguistic differences in reference of concrete verbs** **Sense (denotative meaning)** - - - - - **1 lexical item - 1 referent - 1 sense** - - - **1 lexical item - 3 referents - 3 senses** - - - **Connotation** - - - **Negative, positive and neutral connotations** - - - - - - - - - **Stylistic meaning** - - - - **Semantic fields** - - - - - - - - **Synonymy** - - - - - **Polysemy** - - **The polysemy of RUN** 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. **Homonymy, homography, homophony** - - - - - - **Linguistic relativity hypothesis** Inference: - - Then - **Frames of reference** Frames of reference: basic ways to refer to coordinate systems when describing object positions. - - - **Dead reckoning task** Task: To point in particular cardinal directions when prompted to do so - - - **Time** - - - - - - Task: Observation of co-speech gestures - - - - **Quantities** Numerical cognition Humans have 2 systems for counting: - - Pre-linguistic infants and monkeys can recognize the differences between 1 to 3. The introduction of new mathematical concepts into cultures can fundamentally alter facets of the relevant societies. Research by Everett and Madora (2012) Task: One-to-one matching task - - Results: Unlike English speakers, Piraha speakers struggle with basic quantity recognition task. **Conclusion**: If your language does not have names for numbers higher than 3, you will have greater problems with exactly recognizing such quantities. **Colour perception** - - - Disparate discrimination of colour categories Colour discrimination is comparably faster when hues cross lexical boundaries. - - However, they struggle when attempting to discriminate colours across a boundary (green/blue) that is not lexically codified in their language. **General conclusions** - - - - - **Metaphors and problem solving** - The influence of linguistic metaphors on social problem-solving strategies Task: stories about crime problem, asking participants about potential solutions - - - - **General conclusions about linguistic relativity** Experience for speaking (Levinson 2003): - - - - - **To sum up...** - - - -