UCSP Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics PDF 2021

UCSP Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics HUMSS Department ICI PROPERTY NOT FOR SALE Printed in 2021  Social Institutions Lesson...

UCSP Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics HUMSS Department ICI PROPERTY NOT FOR SALE Printed in 2021  Social Institutions Lesson 7 Lesson Overview Topics covered: I. Different Perspectives on Social Institutions II. Nonstate Institutions a. The Family, Kinship and Marriage b. The Economy c. Educational and Health Institutions d. Religion III. State Institutions a. Politics b. Power c. Authority Learning Objectives: At the end of this lesson, you are expected to: Explain the different forms and functions of state and non-state institutions. Assessment: Quiz 1 Different Perspectives on Social Institutions This topic presents to you several modules that address the various institutions in which humans create and recreate their identities. The elements of social institutions are defined differently by various perspectives. From the smallest human institution (the family) to the largest and most complex economic organizations, this unit will lead you to understand how humans interact with one another within social organizations. Social institutions refer to organized sets of elements such as beliefs, rules, practices, and relationships that exist to attain social order. It also refers to well-established and structured relationships between groups of people that are considered fundamental components of a society’s culture. The elements of social institutions are defined differently by various perspectives. The institutional approach tells us that social institutions are ordered sets of rules, norms, beliefs, or values that organize human behavior. The relational approach meanwhile, focuses on social relations rather than rules, norms, beliefs, or values. Nevertheless, it is possible to consider both approaches and look into both the organized sets of elements as well as social relations when analyzing social institutions. Table 7.1. Types of Social Institutions 1  Table 7.1 shows the primary examples of social institutions which include the sectors of family, economy, education, health, religion, and other nonstate institutions. They differ from political institutions under the state. In analyzing social institutions, it is important to determine how their different elements are organized into a coherent whole. Social institutions like religion are the primary transmitters of culture and the most important agents that determine the character and personality of the members and sectors of society. Nonstate Institutions The Family, Kinship, and Marriage The family is considered a vital social institution. In the Philippines, the family is considered as the foundation of the nation, as stated in the 1987 Constitution. It is a vital institution for the continued survival of humanity because it nurtures offspring from childhood into adulthood. Ferraro and Andreatta (2010) defined family as “a social and economic unit that consists of one or more parents and their children.” The primary purposes of a family are (1) to orient the individual of the norms of the society and (2) to provide Figure 7.1. An illustration of a physical support as the individual matures. family The family is a group of people who are related by birth, marriage and a shared residence such was illustrated in Figure 1. It is the primary socioeconomic unit wherein an individual learns his or her social roles. There are several points that you can learn from this definition. A family is a socioeconomic unit. What makes a group of individuals a family is their dependency on one another with regard to their social and economic activities. This implies that the family acts as the primary support group for its members as they participate in the social processes within a society. For this reason, an individual is often disposed to consult with family members during social and economic crises. A family can have one or more parents. In the society that you grow up in, a family usually consists of two parents-a father and a mother. However, this is not the norm for other societies who would have one parent, a mother or a father, or multiple parents due to multiple marriages. A family can have parents who are not married. Although the marriage of parents is important in religious countries such as the Philippines, it is not a prerequisite in other societies. Hence, as long as individuals are socially and economically interdependent, they can be considered a family. This puts into perspective the concept of common law marriage, which is an informal union of at least two individuals who present themselves as a couple. A family can have parents with same gender. A family can have parents with same gender. Although same sex marriage is illegal in most countries, including the Philippines, some societies allow for the marriage of individuals with the same sex. A family should have at least one child. One of the most crucial elements of a family is the existence of children. Without a child, a couple remains to be a couple and not a family. Kinds of Families 1. Nuclear families - are families that are composed of parents and children. 2. Extended families - are those that are composed of the nuclear family and other relatives such as grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins. 3. Reconstituted families – are composed of the spouses and their children from a previous marriage. 2  Figure 7.2. Distinctions of Nuclear Family Figure 7.2 shows the two distinctions of family. The Ego is an individual or a person in the family. The family of orientation consists of Ego’s father, mother and brother. It is in this family that Ego first learned her society’s norms and her roles in it. This family is also Ego’s primary support group while growing up. The nurturing processes for Ego occurred in the family of orientation. On the other hand, family of procreation consists of Ego’s spouse, son, and daughter. It is in this family that Ego creates her own concept of a family upon negotiation with the spouse. It is in this family that Ego perpetuates the values and beliefs that she has acquired in her family of orientation. Issues of Family The nature of the family in recent times has undergone certain transformations. The conventional image of a nuclear family has now been redefined by certain social changes. For instance, the emergence single-parent families have caused society to rethink the conventional composition of the family as having to parents. The phenomenon of Overseas Filipino Workers has led to the establishment of families where a parent or even both parents are not present, and the position of authority is given to an older relative or even a sibling. Another development that redefined is the emergence of same-sex spouses. Other unconventional family arrangements include married couples who are childless, families who have children through adoption, and the growing number of broken. Kinship The family is also the basis for kinship, which is a social structure defined by the relations among individuals linked by blood or marriage ties. This is referred to as descent or the socially accepted connection between an ancestor and its succeeding generation. Kinship has been found to have a significant influence in defining the social status of individuals in many societies. In the Philippines, for example, many of the noted personalities in politics trace their lineage to families who have held political power and social influence for many years in their respective communities. Kinship connections are perceived to be of great importance in some societies. Due to this descent rules are created and followed. In anthropology, there are four main descent rules that are recognized. This allows an individual to be affiliated to the descent of one sex group only-either the male or the female. Kinship: Unilineal Descent There are two types of unilineal descents: matrilineal and patrilineal. Matrilineal descent leads an individual to trace kinship relations through the female’s line. This implies that the surname and genetic inheritances of a family are passed on from one female to the other. For example, In Asia, the Minangkabau ethnic group of West Sumatra, Indonesia, practices matrilineage. In this society, land and property ownership is passed on from mother to daughter, leaving the men to deal with political and religious affairs. Figure 7.3. Women in Minangkabau Society 3  In Patrilineal descent, an individual trace his or her kinship through the male’s line only. This promotes a passing down of name and genetic inheritance to the male offspring only, while allowing the female offspring to be part of another family through marriage. For example, a lot of societies in Asia are Patrilineal including the Philippines. The most popular are the Chinese who are highly patrilineal, enforcing strict kinship relations through the male’s line. Figure 7.4. A Filipino Patriarchal Family An expansion of Unilineal descent creates a kinship group called the clan. This type of kinship is observed among groups of people who believe that they have unilineal relations based on a common ancestor. The primary difference between a clan and the earlier unilineal descent groups is that individuals from the former cannot specify their actual relations. Some renders the ancestor as a mythical figure. Among Native Americans, ancestors are often ascribed animal characteristics. These clan originators are labeled in anthropology as totems. Hence, clan members use animal symbols to represent their group. For example, in North America, totem Poles are erected by Native American clans as a form of remembrance of their family’s past. Kinship: Bilateral Descent Unlike the unilineal the descent that tends to focus on one line of a kinship, bilateral descent allows an individual to trace kinship ties on both sides of the family. This means that an individual can recognize both his and her parents’ relatives as his or her own relatives. In this type of kins hip, everyone knows how he or she is connected to everyone. This provides a limit on the extent by which kinship ties can be recognized hence unlike in a unilineal descent that can trace relations to several generations from the point person (Ego), bilateral descent can only trace Ego’s immediate family. In some cases, ties with the nuclear family can be extended to family members of the spouses. This kinship grouping is called kindred. As this type of group is often united by a common relative, it risks of dissolution when connections to the common relative is lost. Marriage Marriage is defined as the “socially or ritually recognized union or legal contract between spouses that establishes rights and obligations between them and their children, and between them and their in- laws. It is believed that all societies have a formed of marriage that makes it a cultural universal. Cultural variation produces differing perspectives and practices of relating to marriage. For example, marriage in the Philippines implies being officiated into the union by either a religious leader or a representative of the government such as a city or municipal mayor or a court judge. Using a functionalist perspective, marriage serves several functions: It regulates mating and reproduction. It creates a system that allows for sexual division of labor. It provides for a family dynamic that ensures the provision of needs of Children. It perpetuates economic institutions that are based on family systems. Figure 7.5. Marriage as an Institution Types of families based on marriage systems: Patrifocal – A patrifocal family consists of a father and his children i.e. a family that is in control by the father, as the head of the family. It is also found in societies where men take multiple wives (polygamy or polygyny) and/or remain involved with each for a relatively short time. 4  Matrifocal – A matrifocal family structure is one where mothers head families and fathers play a less important role in the home and in bringing up children. It is also a concept referring to households that consist of one or more adult women and their children without the presence of fathers. Monogamous – This type of family consists of a single couple and their child or children. This is also referred to as the nuclear family. Most societies in the world have this type of family. Serial monogamy occurs in societies where remarriage is allowed after a divorce or death of the other spouse. Polygamous – This type of family consists of several parents and their children. There are two types of polygamy: polyandry and polygyny. o Polyandry is a marriage pattern wherein a woman is allowed to marry several men. The primary reason for allowing this practice is the need to preserve land ownership through generations. o Polygyny is a marriage practice that allows a man to marry several. Most Islamic societies allow this practice. The Economy The societal world has been through several changes, advancements, and innovation since the dawn of the Neolithic stage. Consequently, these changes have greatly affected the social, cultural, political, and most especially economic aspect of societies. Due to various and numerous technological improvements, the whole economic processes have also been developed. The shift in the technological capacity of societies has allowed for the formation and extension of markets, modifications of property relations and relations in the organization of labor. Figure 7.6. Pasig City: One of the Philippines leading cities by economic expansion The economy is an institution that addresses questions regarding limited resources of society. The economy must address some basic questions such as: what should be produced? How are these products going to be produced? How much are these products? The answers to these questions determine how the members of the economy will behave. There are many views regarding how societies address these economic questions. Views on Economy According to liberal economists, the answers to the important questions regarding the resources of the society should be determined by the market. The market, according to Adam Smith (see figure 7.7), is a self-regulating mechanism. The laws and other processes of the market determine the number of goods that will be made available to the members of society, as well as their prices in the market. The consumers and suppliers are free to decide for themselves in participating in market activities, therefore, there is no need for state intervention in the economy. Free competition, which is vital to a market Figure 7.7. Adam Smith (1723-1790) economy will limit the greed of self-interested individuals. 5  Socialists, on the contrary, have a different point of view regarding the economy. They believe that the bourgeoisie or the social class that largely controls the means of production would have an overwhelming control over the free-market economy. According to them, only the bourgeoisie benefits from the free market system. The bourgeoisie is made up of those who are involved in the financial sector like bankers, industrialist, and owners of corporations. They comprise the minority of society and Karl Marx (see Figure 7.8) argued that wealth is concentrated on the few Figure 7.8. Karl Marx which were the Elites or the Capitalists. (1818-1883) It is for this reason that socialists like Karl Marx argued that wealth is concentrated on the few. They argued that the market and the state should be under the control of the proletariat or the laborers. The free market system for Karl Marx has alienated the proletariat or the laborers. The free market system for Marx has alienated the proletariat since they do not have the capital or resources to thrive in it unlike the bourgeoisie. Private Property, which is concentrated on the bourgeoisie, should be abolished and must be under the direction of the state to promote equal distribution of economic resources according to the needs of the people and regardless of class. This is based on the assumption that individuals would not be self-interest individuals but rather individuals who are willing to share resources with one another. Also, Socialist believe that society can only be changed through a revolution that will bring about structural changes in society including abolition of private property that will give way to communism. The establishment of communism will foster a society where all the needs of its members are met. According to Marx, communism is the solution to the alienation of man in a free market system and is an alternative to a free market system controlled by bankers and industrialist. Figure 7.9. The five Communist Countries of the World Throughout the course of history, several states have tried to attain the socialist and communist ideals but have never fully succeeded. Figure 7.9 shows the countries Russia, China, Cuba, and Vietnam, some of the prime examples of states that succeeded in implementing socialist and communist programs and reforms, but have seen significant shifts toward the free market system to address important economic concerns while still being under the single-party state system. What are the types of Economic Processes? 1) Reciprocity - In most situations, when you give something away, you expect something in return. This kind of situation reflects the concept of reciprocity. This economic process entails the exchange of commodities between parties, often on an individual basis. For example barter, is the common form of reciprocity, as this process includes the exchange of commodities between individuals. Figure 7.10. Barter System Types of Reciprocity o Generalized reciprocity – Gift giving without any expectation of immediate return. For example giving birthday presents to a friend. 6  o Balanced reciprocity – Expecting immediate return from any given favor. The value of the commodities is expected to be equal. For example, selling goods and services in the market. o Negative reciprocity – The exchange tends to favor one party over the other, as the value of the goods for exchange is unequal. For example, a merchant selling fake commodities at prices of the original and genuine items. 2) Transfers – When resources from one individual or organization are given to another with no expectation of return, an economic transfer is in place. This type of economic process allows for the redistribution of resources within an economic system. Some examples of this process include the transfer of financial aids, government subsidies, and social security. Figure 7.11. National Government identifies 4Ps as a human capital investment program of the Philippines 3) Redistribution – Economic redistribution occurs when the resources of one, several individuals, or groups are collected and distributed proportionally or equally to participating members. Two of the best examples of redistribution are: o Progressive income tax systems – allow for a process of ensuring that the poorer members of society are given ample resources to cover their basic needs through the imposition of higher taxes among the wealthy; this is a form of redistribution. o Charity donations – people get similar effects that are highly beneficial for them. These donations can affect their social conscience or social image, allowing them to gain public recognition and admiration. 4) Market Transactions – Market is referred to as the exchange of goods and services that involves buying and selling processes. However, it is a not a simple process of exchanging materials, goods, and services. It involves several elements and transactions. Market is about making money, capital, income, and growth. For example, humans have several needs and wants that are deemed as bases of market sellers for producing goods and services. After the production of goods and services, everything is brought to the market for the purpose of selling. Buyers are then expected to purchase the available market supplies (goods and services) for the purpose of consumption and satisfying their needs. These market transactions will continue to happen as long as there are buyers, sellers, supplies, and demands in society. The key element that separates market transaction from reciprocity and redistribution is the use of standardized currency. Figure 7.12 shows the standard currency of the Philippines. This means Figure 7.12. Philippines banking currency symbol that you cannot buy a can of soda from the grocery by giving a chicken that you raised in your backyard. 7  Moreover, market transactions may affect not only part of the economic aspect of human society; it affects the other societal and economic aspects as a whole. One key issue against market economy is its delimiting effect is its delimiting effect on the lives of participating individuals. Nevertheless, economics or a system of sharing limited resources is really just one aspect of human existence, but in a market economy, economics becomes more important than everything else. Health, the environment, community-all of the physical, social, religious, and emotional aspects of our lives are subsumed or taken over by the economic aspects of our lives. 5) Market and State Basically, market involves all the human actions associated with economic aspects. On the other hand, the state serves as the institution that protects and maintains economic balance through its economic laws and policies. Societies with self-developed market economies have to decide as to what they would allow free markets or the government to control the economy. o The free hand of the market, promotes an unbridled economic exchange between people and organizations in their pursuit of profit and surplus. o Heavy hand of the state, promotes a highly structured and codified economic engagement of individuals and organizations as mandated by state-led procedures. o The state through its government, should work hand in hand with the economic sectors of its society to ensure economic and even political stability. Educational and Health Institutions Two institutions that uphold basic human rights are the educational and health institutions. Educational institutions ensure that individuals are functionally literate, while health institutions ensure that individuals have access to health services to promote universal public health. Educational and health services could be provided for free by the state. Some societies, particularly states that have improved economies like Germany, offer free tertiary education for its citizens. In other developing or underdeveloped societies, quality basic education and health services could only be provided by private entities for a fee. Public schools and public hospitals in these societies may have limited services that are free of charge. This is a continuing challenge for those societies. Philippine health system is in critical state with reports of thousands having struggled to access adequate health care following sharp surge in hospitalization due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Figure 7.13. Hospitals remain at risk of being overwhelmed and many struggled to access adequate healthcare system in the Philippines Educational institutions like schools do not only ensure a literate population; they also transmit culture. The belief, norms, values, and practices of a society are taught in classrooms. As such, schools and teachers are agents of socialization. 8  Educational institutions are also cultural institutions that serve as depositories and preservers of culture. Schools also provide its students with a sense of history. A shared national history and common national culture binds members of the society with one another. Schools can therefore be a means for the state to create a loyal citizenry. Religion Religion is an institution that involves a set of beliefs and practices of a particular social group. The beliefs of religious groups affect the behavior of their members. It is important therefore to know how the beliefs of a religion affect the actions of its members. Religion may be organized into a group that has universal membership called a church or it could be organized into an exclusive group called a sect. Figure 7.14. World Religions Infographics Religions can be further classified into monotheistic, animistic or polytheistic religions: 1. Monotheistic – refers to religions that believe in only one god, while polytheistic religions believe in many gods. Christianity, Judaism, and Islam are examples of monotheistic religions. 2. Polytheistic – refers to religions that believe that there two or more gods. For example, in the religion of Hinduism. 3. Animism – a belief system that holds that both animate and inanimate things have a spiritual essence. It is different monotheistic and polytheistic religions that limit spirituality to human beings and transcendental beings. As a result, animists venerate objects such as rocks, lakes, plants, and other natural elements. Shintoism and Jainism are examples of belief systems that contain elements of animism. Other Nonstate Institutions Banks and Corporations There are several financial institutions that aid people in terms of money and investments. In these institutions, everything is associated, related, and linked to money and financial transactions. They cater to different types of people and organizations. Financial institutions may be categorized into major forms such as: a) Commercial banks b) Investment banks c) Insurance companies d) Brokerages e) Investment companies or corporations. 9 Trade Unions and Cooperatives Trade unions and cooperatives have the primary role of promoting labor welfare and good industrial relations. Trade unions and cooperatives are organizations comprising workers and laborers with common goals, purposes, and interests. They mostly concern employment relations, decency, and welfare. Development Agencies Development agencies are organizations with specific aims and goals. The common denominator among these organizations is the term development. These agencies concentrate on the growth, progression, and advancement of specific societal concerns, which can be infrastructure or social institutions. Several sectors of the international community have issues with development as they believe that it is laden with various social constructs that resolve around post-colonial and hegemonic arguments. There are two major types of organizations that are considered as development agencies: International Organizations – is essentially to provide support and assistance through organized framework to international cooperation. This cooperation aims to be developed across several institutions over time International organizations concentrate mostly on the distribution of equitable health and social development. Also, these organizations have diverse networks that enable them to provide and exchange support across different borders and localize their implementations of international policies. The following are examples of international organizations as listed by UN and its specialized agencies: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Organization of African Unity (OAU) Organization of American States (OAS) Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) European Union (EU) European Free Trade Association (EFTA) North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) Figure 7.15. The Emblem of the United Nations Nongovernment Organizations Mostly working in limited territories, NGOs are often characterized by their intensive collaboration with local stakeholders to improve their beneficiaries' conditions. It defined NGOs as nonprofit, often voluntary, organizations that carry a broad range of social development functions with and on behalf of people. The vast majority of these organizations exist outside of government and, thus, their programs emanate more from the expressed needs of people rather than from governments. Aims of Nongovernment Organizations: Most NGO’s aim to promote the practice of democracy among societies. These organizations are independent, and they encourage participation from the public. NGOs also aim to promote social change through their initiatives and organizational methods. Sometimes, NGOs seek sponsorship from some other institutions and organizations to fund their projects and programs. Many NGOs have targeted their efforts toward population groups that tend to be underserved by governmental programs, including women, the aged, physically and mentally disabled persons, the poor, and various social groups that have been marginalized by virtue of race, religion, ethnicity, caste, and social class. 10  Figure 7.16. The United Nations NGO Guide: Sustainable Development Goals for Community Categories of NGO’s and their Description 1. Community associations – Represent voices of people from different communities, and act as bridge between members of the communities and government. 2. Policy advocacy groups – Have local, national, and international levels of participation; serve as catalysts for collective action among poor persons in societies unaccustomed to such behavior. 3. Service provider intermediaries – Have national and international levels of participation; serve remote areas and communities especially those who fail to receive government programs; seek fund through income generating activities which are mostly nonprofit. 4. Contractors – Involved in sponsored projects as consultants to government agencies or to international financial institutions that gain no profit at all. 5. Cooperatives – Protect and provide economic benefits to the needy; are formed when a task cannot be done on the individual level, such as obtaining credit. State Institutions: Politics, Power, and Authority Can you imagine life without leaders or governments? You may wonder if that scenario is even possible. In this topic, you will learn how other societies organize their political lives that may be distinct from what you are aware of. As societies progressed through the centuries, People organized themselves in more complex ways, and relationships began to be increasingly defined by power and authority. Among the most significant social developments was the formulation of laws that defined social behavior, promoted social order, and settled disputes. Leaders emerged and they began to take on more responsibilities and exercised vast authority over various aspects of social life. These social changes consequently brought about changes in political life. What is Politics? Politics refers to activities through which people make, preserve, and amend the general rules under which they live. It involves the dynamics of conflict resolution and cooperation, as well as the exercise of power. What is Power? Power refers to the ability to do something in order to achieve a desired outcome. A person with power has the capability to control people or make them do something that they would not do otherwise. Social scientists emphasize the notion that power involves a relationship – there is one who exercises power and another who is subject to it. 11 What is Authority? Authority is a legitimate power. This means that a person who has authority has the right to exercise power. The exercise of authority means that the person who exercises power is obeyed by the people because he/ she are recognized as the rightful or legitimate ruler or leader. Legitimacy Derived from Latin word legitimate, meaning “to declare lawful”. Defined as “rightfulness”. Confers on an order or command an authoritative or binding character, thus transforming power into authority. A moral or rational principle that is ground on which government may demand obedience from citizens. The extent of a leader’s power relies on how much his or her followers accord him or her with it. Max Weber, a 20th century sociologist, studied the transformation of societies and observed that the bases of legitimacy of rule vary in different types of societies. According to him, every leader has some form of justification as to why he or she should be accorded with such power. For Weber, there must be an explanation or justification why certain men rise to positions of authority or superiority and why Figure 7.17. Max Weber (1864- 1920) people obey them. He came up with three types of authority: traditional, charismatic, and legal-rational. A. Traditional Authority Authority is based on a system that is believed to have “always existed”. Inherited or occupied position that has been passed on to them. The legitimacy of this type of authority is based on long-established customs and traditions that do not need to be justified. Examples of traditional authority are those exercised by elders in a tribe or an indigenous people’s group as well as by monarchs who have inherited their power and authority. In Figure 7.18 is Queen Elizabeth II, Figure 7.18. Queen the longest reigning monarch in British history. Elizabeth II: Queen of the United Kingdom B. Charismatic Authority Based on the presumed special and extraordinary characteristics possessed by a certain individual. People with Charisma are often very popular, highly persuasive, and inspire loyalty and obedience from other People. They are also often seen as “born leaders” and “heroes”. Charisma is generally considered a gift or an innate quality unique to a person, but there are also instances when it can be manufactured through the use of propaganda. Figure 7.19. Che Guevara Figure 7.20. Mao Tse-Tung Figure 7.21. John Kennedy 12  In Figure 7.19 is Che Guevara, a prominent communist figure in the Cuban Revolution who went on to become a guerrilla leader in South America. Executed by the Bolivian army in 1967, he has since been regarded as a martyred hero by generations of leftists worldwide. Mao Tse-Tung (see Figure 7.20) was the principal Chinese Marxist theorist, soldier and statesman who led his nation's Cultural Revolution. Mao is regarded as one of the most important individuals in the twentieth century. During his era, China was involved in the Korean War, the Sino- Soviet split, the Vietnam War, and the rise of Khmer Rouge. John F. Kennedy (see Figure 7.21) was the youngest man ever elected to the American presidency. He symbolized—as he well realized—a new generation and its coming-of-age. He was the first president born in the 20th century, the first young veteran of World War II to reach the White House. C. Legal-Rational Authority Most typical type of authority in modern societies. Legitimized by a clearly defined set of written rules and laws. Leaders can rightfully wield authority if they obtain their positions according to established procedures such as elections or through appointment. Heads of governments such as presidents and prime ministers possess legal-rational authority. Economically-developed societies are most likely to have undergone the processes of rationalization and bureaucratization and adhere most closely to the legal-rational concept of authority. Among the three types of authority, a legal-rational system has the highest degree of stability. Figure 7.22. Philippine Presidents The figure above shows President Rodrigo R. Duterte (center) poses with former President and Manila Mayor Joseph E. Estrada (left), former President and Pampanga Representative Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo (2nd from left), former President and Special Envoy to China Fidel V. Ramos (2nd from right), and former President Benigno S. Aquino III (right), before the start of the National Security Council (NSC) meeting at the State Dining Room of the Malacañan Palace on July 27, 2016. They are examples of individuals who possess legal-rational authority. Political Organizations and Leadership Structures Concepts Political organizations – as the groups within a culture that are responsible for public decision-making and leadership, maintaining social cohesion and order, protecting group rights, and ensuring safety from external threats. Political and leadership – have evolved as societies progressed over time. From the emergence of simple bands, tribes, and chiefdoms, to the establishment of modern nation-states, different types of political organizations and leadership structures emerged as social interactions underwent transformations. Political dynasties – are believed to have always in advanced democratic states. A “dynasty” refers to a succession from rulers from the same line of descent. 13  Thus, relatives who stay in power-specifically, members of one family who continuously hold elective political positions-are considered members of a political dynasty. Political clientelism – is giving material goods in return for electoral support. The relationship involves two parties: the patron (politician) and the client (voter). These two political trends continue to be a challenge to the Philippine political and leadership system. Political culture – refers to the pattern of orientation to political objects such as parties, government, and constitution, expressed in beliefs, symbols and values. People generally acquire values and attitudes about politics and political institutions through the process of political socialization. Nation and State The term “nation” and “state are often used interchangeably in everyday life. However, the distinctions between these two have to be recognized. Nation – it consists of a distinct population of people bound together by a common culture, history, and tradition who are typically concentrated within a specific geographic region. It has two aspects-a cultural community and a political community. State – it is a political unit that encompasses several communities, has a bureaucracy, and has leaders that possess legitimate power. Sovereignty – the legitimate and ultimate authority of the state, over an area of territory and the people within it. Max Weber observed that the processes of rationalization and bureaucratization that happened in Western European Societies were a consequence of industrialization. The expansion of economic activities led to the rationalization of economic functions of individuals which in turn paved the way for the growth of bureaucracy. Bureaucracy – a system of government in which most of the important decisions are made by state officials rather than by elected representatives. Interrelationship of Government and Non-state Institutions Government plays a vital role in human society because it is expected that its effort and initiatives must be aligned with public welfare and service. Personal interest must be the least concern of the bureaucracy to ensure goodwill and avoid societal dysfunction. Failure to perform bureaucratic functions will lead to different forms of conflict among societies. How does the government relate to non-state institutions? Governments are faced with varying demands from its constituents. When governments are unable to address such demands and their related issues, non-state institutions create responses to facilitate government intervention through policy campaigns or even actual delivery of demanded services and products. Presently, non-state institutions have been empowered, allowing them to have greater and wider participation in different societies. This paved the way to a broader relationship with government institutions. The ideal relationship of government and non-state institutions is one that is on equal footing in addressing social issues. Government rules societies according to existing norms and values in the form of laws, rights, and policies. These effects how powerful a government institution can be. 14  Accordingly, if non-state institutions interfere with the governing body, two things can happen. First, integration among these two institutions may take place to achieve precise solution towards development. Second, conflict and tension a multi-stakeholder may also arise because one could exceed the other in terms of societal control. In a continuously globalizing world, interdependence among states in procuring commodities and services is inevitable. The lack of supply in one country can be addressed by another country that has a surplus of which. As raw materials become scarcer and more difficult to procure, economic alliance with the state presents itself as one of the solutions. This aims to promote economic improvement and, at the same time, resolve issues concerning closed economies. The main objective of economic alliance is to produce economic policies that lead to economic diversity and growth. The ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) is one of the more recent examples of economic alliances formed by countries to promote economic stability and sustainability in their region. In the AEC, citizens of participating countries are expected to have easier employment access within the region. The transfer of commodities will also be made cheaper through lowered tariff rates to promote intensive economic linkages and free flow of goods. Figure 7.23. ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) Symbol Essential Learning The development of humans and the conditions of their society are goals that are achievable through collaborative engagement among the community, the government, and non-state institutions. The success of development programs is highly reliant on the efficiency of the collaboration of the stakeholders. 15 References Ambassador1,etal.“WillILosePoints If I Delete My Blog Post?”ActiveRain, activerain.com/blogsview/4323540/will- i-lose-points-if-i-delete-my-blog-post-. Accessed 27 Aug. 2021. “AssociationofSoutheastAsianNations(ASEAN)VectorLogoDownloadforFree.”SeekVectorLogo,seekvectorlogo.com /association-of-southeast-asian-nations-asean-vector-logo-svg/. Accessed 31 Aug. 2021. Bely, Alexander A. “Integration” What is Social Inclusion? February 22, 2017. Photograph. https://fb.ru/article/296419/chto-takoe-sotsialnaya-integratsiya-znachenie.Accessed August 27, 2021. Brindle, Timothy E. “A Biblical Theology of Family, Parenting, and Fatherhood.” August 23, 2018 Timothy.BrindleMinistries.VectorIllustrationofaFamily.Container1.https://timothybrindleministries.com/ab iblical-theology-of-family-parents-and-father/ Accessed August 27, 2021. Cell Guard Health https://www.facebook.com/cellguardhealth/about/?ref=page_internal September 17, 2016. Accessed August 27, 2021. “COVID19 Resources.” MAIS, www.mais-web.org/covid19-resources. Accessed 27 Aug. 2021. FeaturesDesk. Makati Business District. April 19, 2021. A Large Photograph of a Building. http://ikotmnl.com/makati-business-district/ Accessed August 27, 2021. Gray, Blake. The Adam Smith Gala, March 10, 2018. University of Glasgow. Antique Photography of Adam Smith. https://asesglasgow.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Adam-Smith-Gala-Programme-2018.pdf Accessed August 27, 2021. “Health Clipart PNG Images | Vector and PSD Files | Free Download on Pngtree.” Pngtree, pngtree.com/so/health- clipart. Accessed 27 Aug. 2021. History.com Editors. “John F. Kennedy.” HISTORY, A&E Television Networks, 2 Sept. 2018, www.history.com/topics/us-presidents/john-f-kennedy. Luis, Orlando. “The Story behind Che’s Iconic Photo.” Smithsonian, Smithsonian.com, 3 Nov. 2016, www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/iconic-photography-che-guevara-alberto-korda-cultural-travel- 180960615/. “Mao Tse-Tung.” Biography, 28 Apr. 2017, www.biography.com/political-figure/mao-tse-tung. Natalie. “Natalie Gawenat.” KiB-Kinder in Balance, kib-coaching.de/natalie-gawenat/. Accessed 31 Aug. 2021. “Outsource Management Icon.” Creative Market, creativemarket.com/Creativepriyanka/5192511-Outsource- management-icon. Accessed 27 Aug. 2021. “Panaji and TERI-GIZ Are Incentivising Recycling with Barter System.” The News24 Goa, 3 Oct. 2020, thenews24goa.com/city-news/panaji-and-teri-giz-are-incentivising-recycling-with-barter-system/44662. Accessed 27 Aug. 2021. Schulman, Susan S. “Indonesia’s Minangkabau: The World’s Largest Matrilineal Society.” December 12, 2011. Matriarchies of Today and The Past. Photography of Minangkabau Women. Container 1. https://mmstudies.com/matriarchies/minangkabau/ Accessed August 27, 2021. “Speaker, Cartoon Speaker, Stereo Speakers, Hand Speaker, Music Speaker, Speaker Icon, Bluetooth Speaker, Fundal, Speakers, Raster | Anyrgb.” Www.anyrgb.com, www.anyrgb.com/en-clipart-yegxa. Accessed 31 Aug. 2021. Speaking About News, CCP President Xi Jin Ping delivering a Speech, July 12, 2021. https://speakingaboutnews.com/must-watch-video-china-and-taiwan-crisis-in-2021/ccp/ Accessed August 27, 2021. Whitton, George R. Seven Simple Spiritual Laws for Parents. Unity of Dayton. January 28, 2020. Photograph of a Black Family. Container 1. https://unitydayton.org/seven-simple-spiritual-laws-for-parents-2/ Accessed August 27, 2021. “World Religions Images - Public Domain Pictures - Page 1.” Www.publicdomainpictures.net, www.publicdomainpictures.net/en/hledej.php?hleda=world+religions. Accessed 31 Aug. 2021. 16