Internet Technologies Lecture PDF

Today’s tech titans are intensifying their efforts to improve their AI technologies to beat their competition in an emerging new market. However, advances in natural language processing techniques have enabled Amazon to develop exciting new technologies like the Amazon Echo and its under...

Today’s tech titans are intensifying their efforts to improve their AI technologies to beat their competition in an emerging new market. However, advances in natural language processing techniques have enabled Amazon to develop exciting new technologies like the Amazon Echo and its underlying AI technology, which Amazon calls Alexa. The Echo is marketed as a home assistant that can perform a variety of tasks using speech recognition.  Although customers interested in using this capability must have account info, payment info, and addresses already on file, this represents an important new sales channel for businesses.  Apple was the first to release a digital assistant in 2011 when it unveiled Siri, which comes pre-installed on all modern iPhones and is perhaps the most well-known AI assistant.  Chatbots are AI services that can interact with users via text and automate many parts of the purchasing process that currently are manual. THE INTERNET: TECHNOLOGY BACKGROUND  Internet an interconnected network of thousands of networks and millions of computers linking businesses, educational institutions, government agencies, and individuals.  No single organization controls the Internet or how it functions, nor is it owned by anybody, yet it has provided the infrastructure for a transformation in commerce, scientific research, and culture. The word Internet is derived from the word internetwork, or the connecting together of two or more computer networks.  The Web is one of the Internet’s most popular services, providing access to billions, perhaps trillions, of web pages, which are documents created in a programming language called HTML that can contain text, graphics, audio, video, and other objects, as well as “hyperlinks” that permit users to jump easily from one page to another. Web pages are navigated using web browser software. THE INTERNET: KEY TECHNOLOGY CONCEPTS Internet is a network that uses the IP addressing scheme, supports the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).There are three extremely important concepts that are the basis for understanding the Internet: packet switching, the TCP/IP communications protocol, and client/server computing.  Packet Switching Packet switching is a method of slicing digital messages into discrete units called packets, sending the packets along different communication paths as they become available, and then reassembling the packets once they arrive at their destination.  Router is a special-purpose computer that interconnects the different computer networks that make up the Internet and routes packets along to their ultimate destination as they travel. To ensure that packets take the best available path toward their destination, routers use a computer program called a routing algorithm.  Protocol Set of rules and standards for data transfer.  Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Core communications protocol for the Internet.  TCP Establishes connections among sending and receiving computers and handles assembly and reassembly of packets.  IP Provides the Internet’s addressing scheme TCP/IP is divided into four separate layers, with each layer handling a different aspect of the communication problem.  The Network Interface Layer is responsible for placing packets on and receiving them from the network medium.  The Internet Layer is responsible for addressing, packaging, and routing messages on the Internet.  The Transport Layer is responsible for providing communication with other protocols (applications) within the TCP/IP protocol suite by acknowledging and sequencing the packets to and from the applications.  The Application Layer includes a variety of protocols used to provide user services or exchange data. Other important protocols included in the Application layer include Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), and Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP). IP Addresses Every computer connected to the Internet must be assigned an address. There are two versions of IP currently in use: IPv4 and IPv6.  IPv4 Internet address Internet address expressed as a 32-bit number that appears as a series of four separate numbers marked off by periods.  IPv6 Internet address Internet address expressed as a 128-bit number, so it can support up to (3.4×) addresses.  Domain name: IP address expressed in natural language.  Domain Name System (DNS) system for expressing numeric IP addresses in natural language.  Uniform Resource Locator (URL) the address used by a web browser to identify the location of content on the Web. also uses a domain name as part of the URL. A typical URL contains the protocol to be used when accessing the address, followed by its location. Client/Server Computing  client/server computing a model of computing in which client computers are connected in a network together with one or more servers.  Client is a powerful desktop computer that is part of a network.  Servers are networked computers dedicated to common functions that the client computers on the network need, such as file storage, software applications, utility programs that provide web connections, and printers. THE MOBILE PLATFORM  Today, the primary means of accessing the Internet both in the United States and worldwide is through highly portable smartphones and tablet computers, and not traditional desktop or laptop PCs. This means that the primary platform for e-commerce products and services is also changing to a mobile platform.  The form factor of PCs has changed from desktops to laptops and tablet computers such as the iPad (and more than 100 other competitors). Tablets are lighter, do not require a complex operating system, and rely on the Internet cloud to provide processing and storage. In the United States, about 162 million people access the Internet using a tablet computer.  The mobile platform has profound implications for e- commerce because it influences how, where, and when consumers shop and buy. “CLOUD COMPUTING” MODEL: HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE AS A SERVICE  Cloud computing model of computing in which computer processing, storage, software, and other services are provided as a shared pool of virtualized resources over the Internet. Cloud computing consists of three basic types of services:  Infrastructure as a service (IaaS): Customers use processing, storage, networking, and other computing resources from third- party providers called cloud service providers (CSPs) to run their information systems.  Platform as a service (PaaS): Customers use infrastructure and programming tools supported by the CSP to develop their own applications.  Software as a service (SaaS): Customers use software hosted by the vendor on the vendor’s cloud infrastructure and delivered as a service over a network. A cloud can be private, public, or hybrid:  Public cloud third-party service providers that own and manage large, scalable data centers that offer computing, data storage, and high-speed Internet to multiple customers who pay for only the resources they use.  Private cloud provides similar options as public cloud but only to a single renter.  Hybrid cloud computing model, in which they use their own infrastructure for their most essential core activities and adopt public cloud computing for less- critical systems.  Cloud computing has many significant implications for e- commerce. For e-commerce firms, cloud computing radically reduces the cost of building and operating websites because the necessary hardware infrastructure and software can be licensed as a service from CSPs at a fraction of the cost of purchasing these services as products.  This means firms can adopt “pay-as-you-go” and “pay-as-you- grow” strategies when building out their websites.  For corporations, cloud computing means that a significant part of hardware and software costs (infrastructure costs) can be reduced because firms can obtain these services online for a fraction of the cost of owning, and they do not have to hire an IT staff to support the infrastructure. OTHER INTERNET PROTOCOLS AND UTILITY PROGRAMS They are not owned by any organization, but they are services that have been developed over many years and made available to all Internet users.  Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the Internet protocol used to transfer web pages. An HTTP session begins when a client’s browser requests a resource, such as a web page, from a remote Internet server. When the server responds by sending the page requested, the HTTP session for that object ends. Because web pages may have many objects on them—graphics, sound or video files, frames, and so forth—each object must be requested by a separate HTTP message.  E-mail is one of the oldest, most important, and frequently used Internet services. Like HTTP, the various Internet protocols used to handle e-mail all run in the Application Layer of TCP/IP. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is the Internet protocol used to send e-mail to a server. the client computer uses either Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3) or Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP). You can set POP3 to retrieve e-mail messages from the server and then delete the messages on the server, or retain them on the server. IMAP is a more current e-mail protocol. IMAP allows users to search, organize, and filter their mail prior to downloading it from the server.  File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is one of the original Internet services. FTP runs in TCP/IP’s Application Layer and permits users to transfer files from a server to their client computer, and vice versa.  Telnet is a network protocol that also runs in TCP/IP’s Application Layer and is used to allow remote login on another computer.  Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)/Transport Layer Security (TLS) are protocols that operate between the Transport and Application Layers of TCP/IP and secure communications between the client and the server. SSL/TLS helps secure e-commerce communications and payments through a variety of techniques, such as message encryption and digital signatures.  Packet InterNet Groper (Ping) is a utility program that allows you to check the connection between a client computer and a TCP/IP network.  Tracert is one of several route-tracing utilities that allow you to follow the path of a message you send from your client to a remote computer on the Internet. THE INTERNET BACKBONE  Originally, the Internet had a single backbone, but today’s Internet is woven together from numerous privately owned networks comprised of high-bandwidth fiber- optic cable that are physically connected with each other and that transfer information from one private network to another.  These long-haul fiber-optic networks are owned by firms sometimes referred to as Tier 1 Internet Service Providers (Tier 1 ISPs) (also sometimes called transit ISPs). Tier 1 ISPs have “peering” arrangements with other Tier 1 ISPs to allow Internet traffic to flow through each other’s cables and equipment without charge. Tier 1 ISPs deal only with other Tier 1 or Tier 2 ISPs and not with end consumers.  The backbone has been likened to a giant pipeline that transports data around the world in milliseconds. In the United States, the backbone is composed entirely of fiber-optic cable with bandwidths ranging from 155 Mbps to 2.5 Gbps.  Bandwidth measures how much data can be transferred over a communications medium within a fixed period of time and is usually expressed in bits per second (Bps), kilobits (thousands of bits) per second (Kbps), megabits (millions of bits) per second (Mbps), or gigabits (billions of bits) per second (Gbps).  There are several regional hubs where Tier 1 ISPs physically connect with one another and/or with regional (Tier 2) ISPs.  Tier 2 ISPs exchange Internet traffic both through peering arrangements as well as by purchasing Internet transit, and they connect Tier 1 ISPs with Tier 3 ISPs, which provide Internet access to consumers and business.  These hubs now are more commonly referred to as Internet Exchange Points (IXPs) There are two types of service: narrowband and broadband:  Narrowband service is the traditional telephone modem connection now operating at 56.6 Kbps.  Broadband service is based on DSL (including high speed fiber-optic service), cable, telephone (T1 and T3 lines), and satellite technologies. Broadband, in the context of Internet service, refers to any communication technology that permits clients to play  Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) service is a telephone technology that provides high speed access to the Internet through ordinary telephone lines found in a home or business. Service levels typically range from about.5 to 15 Mbps.  DSL service requires that customers live within two miles (about 4,000 meters) of a neighborhood telephone switching center. In order to compete with cable companies, telephone companies now also offer an advanced form of DSL called FiOS (Fiber-Optic Service) that provides up to 500 Mbps to homes and businesses.  T1 an international telephone standard for digital communication that offers guaranteed delivery at 1.54 Mbps.  T3 an international telephone standard for digital communication that offers guaranteed delivery at 45 Mbps.  Satellite Internet high-speed broadband Internet access provided via satellite. Access speeds and monthly costs are comparable to DSL and cable, but typically require a higher initial payment for installation of a small (18-inch) satellite dish. Upload speeds tend to be slower, typically 1–5 Mbps.  campus/corporate area network (CAN) generally, a local area network operating within a single organization that leases access to the Web directly from regional and national carriers.  intranet a TCP/IP network located within a single organization for purposes of communications and information processing. WHO GOVERNS THE INTERNET?  Aficionados and journalists often claim that the Internet is governed by no one, and indeed cannot be governed, and that it is inherently above and beyond the law.  In fact, the Internet is tied into a complex web of governing bodies, national governments, and international professional societies. There is no one single governing organization that controls activity on the Internet. Instead, there are a number of organizations that influence the system and monitor its operations. Among the governing bodies of the Internet are:  The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), which coordinates the Internet’s systems of unique identifiers: IP addresses, protocol parameter registries, and the top-level domain systems. ICANN is a nonprofit organization and manages the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), which is in charge of assigning IP addresses.  The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), which is an open international community of network operators, vendors, and researchers concerned with the evolution of the Internet architecture and operation of the Internet.  The Internet Research Task Force (IRTF), which focuses on the evolution of the Internet. The IRTF has a number of long-term research groups working on various topics such as Internet protocols, applications, and technology.  The Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG), which is responsible for technical management of IETF activities and the Internet standards process.  The Internet Architecture Board (IAB), which helps define the overall architecture of the Internet and oversees the IETF and IRTF.  The Internet Society (ISOC), which is a consortium of corporations, government agencies, and nonprofit organizations that monitors Internet policies and practices.  The Internet Governance Forum (IGF), which is a multi-stakeholder open forum for debate on issues related to Internet governance.  The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), which is a largely academic group that sets HTML and other programming standards for the Web.  The Internet Network Operators Groups (NOGs), which are informal groups that are made up of ISPs, IXPs, and others that discuss and attempt to influence matters While none of these organizations has actual control over the Internet and how it functions, they can and do influence government agencies, major network owners, ISPs, corporations, and software developers with the goal of keeping the Internet operating as efficiently as possible. LIMITATIONS OF THE CURRENT INTERNET Much of the Internet’s current infrastructure is several decades old. It suffers from a number of limitations, including:  Bandwidth limitations. There is insufficient capacity throughout the backbone.  Quality of service limitations. Today’s information packets take a circuitous route to get to their final destinations. This creates the phenomenon of latency—delays in messages caused by the uneven flow of information packets through the network.  Network architecture limitations.  Wired Internet. THE INTERNET2® PROJECT Internet2® is an advanced networking consortium of more than 450 member institutions including universities, corporations, government research agencies, and not-for-profit networking organizations, all working in partnership to facilitate the development, deployment, and use of revolutionary Internet technologies. The broader Internet2 community includes more than 90,000 institutions across the United States and international networking partners in more than 100 countries. Internet2’s work is a continuation of the kind of cooperation among government, private, and educational organizations that created the original Internet. THE FIRST MILE AND THE LAST MILE The Internet2 project is just the tip of the iceberg when it comes to future enhancements to the Internet. The most significant privately initiated changes are coming in two areas: fiber- optic trunk line bandwidth and wireless Internet services.  Fiber optics is concerned with the first mile or backbone Internet services that carry bulk traffic long distances.  Wireless Internet is concerned with the last mile—from the larger Internet to the user’s smartphone, tablet computer, or laptop.  Although official standards are not expected to be fully rolled out for a few years, 5G is expected to provide for high bandwidth mobile broadband with speeds reaching 10 Gbps or more, support for up to 100,000 connections per square kilometer (known as massive machine-to-machine (M2M) connections), and ultra low-latency (less than 10 milliseconds) communications.  Next-generation Wi-Fi standards currently being worked on by the IEEE 802.11 Working Group include 802.11ay, a follow-up to 802.11ad that also uses 60 GHz wireless, and will provide for data rates of up to 20 Gbps. THE FUTURE INTERNET  The increased bandwidth and expanded wireless network connectivity of the Internet of the future will result in benefits beyond faster access and richer communications.  Some of the major benefits of these technological advancements include latency solutions, guaranteed service levels, lower error rates, and declining costs. Widespread wireless access to the Internet will also essentially double or even triple the size of the online shopping marketspace because consumers will be able to shop and make purchases just about anywhere. This is equivalent to doubling the physical floor space of all shopping malls in America.  Latency Solutions One of the challenges of packet switching, where data is divided into chunks and then sent separately to meet again at the destination. Differentiated quality of service (diffserv) is a technology that assigns levels of priority to packets based on the type of data being transmitted.  Guaranteed Service Levels and Lower Error Rates In the future, it might be possible to purchase the right to move data through the network at a guaranteed speed in return for higher fees.  Declining Costs As the Internet pipeline is upgraded, the availability of broadband service will expand beyond major metropolitan areas, significantly reducing the cost of access. The Internet of Things Internet of Things (IoT) Use of the Internet to connect a wide variety of devices, machines, and sensors. as well as implementation of IPv6, which will allow Internet addresses to be assigned to all of these new devices.  Security experts believe that IoT devices could potentially be a security disaster, with the potential for malware being spread through a connected network, and difficulty in issuing patches to devices, leaving them vulnerable.  Data from stand-alone smart devices can reveal much personal detail about a consumer’s life, and if those devices are all ultimately interconnected, there will be little that is truly private. THE WEB Without the Web, there would be no e-commerce.  The initial versions of HTML, HTTP, a web server, and a browser, the four essential components of the Web.  Universal computing the sharing of files, information, graphics, sound, video, and other objects across all computer platforms in the world, regardless of Netscape Navigator. Although Mosaic had been distributed free of charge, Netscape initially charged for its software. In August 1995, Microsoft Corporation released its own free version of a browser, called Internet Explorer. In the ensuing years, Netscape fell from a 100% market share to less than.5% in 2009. The fate of Netscape illustrates an important e-commerce business lesson. Innovators usually are not long-term winners, whereas smart followers often have the assets Hypertext A way of formatting pages with embedded links that connect documents to one another, and that also link pages to other objects such as sound, video, or animation files. A Uniform Resource Locator, or URL. When typed into a browser, a URL tells it exactly where to look for the information. For example, in the following URL: http://www.megacorp.com/content/features/082602.html http = the protocol used to display web pages www.megacorp.com = domain name content/features = the directory path that identifies where on the domain web server the page is stored 082602.html = the document name and its format (an HTML page)  HyperText Markup Language (HTML) HTML provides web page designers with a fixed set of markup “tags” that are used to format a web page.  HTML web pages can be created with any text editor, such as Notepad or WordPad, using Microsoft Word (simply save the Word document as a web page), or any one of several web page development tools such as Microsoft Expression Web or Adobe Dreamweaver CC.  The most recent version of HTML is HTML5. HTML5 introduces features like video playback and drag- and-drop that in the past were provided by plug-ins like Adobe Flash. HTML5 is also used in the development of mobile websites and mobile apps, and is an important  eXtensible Markup Language (XML) A markup language specification developed by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) that is designed to describe data and information.  Really Simple Syndication (RSS) program that allows users to have digital content, including text, articles, blogs, and podcast audio files, automatically sent to their computers over the Internet. WEB SERVERS AND CLIENTS web server software Software that enables a computer to deliver web pages written in HTML to client computers on a network that request this service by sending an HTTP request.  Apache, which works with Linux and Unix operating systems, is the most commonly used type of web server software in terms of number of active websites. Microsoft’s Internet Information Services (IIS) also has significant market share.  The term web server is also used to refer to the physical computer that runs web server software.  Virtual reality (VR) Involves fully immersing users within a virtual world, typically through the use of a head-mounted display (HMD) connected to headphones and other devices.  Augmented reality (AR) Involves overlaying virtual objects over the real world, via smartphones, tablets, or HMDs. MOBILE APPS: THE NEXT BIG THING IS HERE  Apple introduced the App Store, which provides a platform for the distribution and sale of apps by Apple as well as by independent developers.  Around the same time, Google was developing Android as an open source operating system for mobile devices. In October 2008, the first smartphone using Android was released, and Google launched the Android Market (now called Google Play) as the official app store for Android.