Cognition: Week 5 Lecture PDF

PSYC21081 &21181 Cognition: Week 5 Last week OLD NEW or  Overview 1 2 3 4 5 / Types of...

PSYC21081 &21181 Cognition: Week 5 Last week OLD NEW or  Overview 1 2 3 4 5 / Types of How fast do we Role of Main causes of Interference and forgetting forget consolidation forgetting related (forgetting rates) phenomena Asynchronous content & FORGE T TIN G RAT E Forgetting Types of Forgetting Incidental Forgetting Motivated forgetting Occurs without the intention to forget Purposefully diminish access to mistake memory (e.g., unwanted memories) · By. · Remove unwanted memories.  Ø Uncontrollable remembering Ø Feels as though the person relives the events they Superior remember Autobiographical Ø Remembering is “automatic”, effortless, and not under conscious control Memory Ø Cannot forget unpleasant memories Ø Memories can be distracting Traumatic events example. : · For Forgetting rate Do we forget at a constant rate over time? ▪ Forgetting increases as time progresses BUT the rate of forgetting is different ▪ Ebbinghaus studies on forgetting (memorimone es e e ▪ Forgetting curve ▪ Logarithmic relationship nicated. ~ ▪ Forgetting rapid initially ▪ Less additional forgetting at longer intervals is closer to the event forgetting - most  Meeter et al., 2005 Aim: Forgetting rate of public events Task: Forgetting 14,000 participants completed an online study of recall and recognition for 40 events Public Events Results: Recognition o Similar to Ebbinghaus forgetting Recall curve! o Recall: steep initial drop followed by slower forgetting rate o Recall for events dropped from 60% to 30% in a year o Recognition for same events was less affected Figure from Meeter et al., 2005  Bahrick et al 1975 Aim: ▪ To explore forgetting rate of personal events/information Forgetting Task: Personal Events ▪ 400 US high-school graduates were tested on recalling and recognising names of classmates after delays of up to 30 years. Results: ▪ Recognition of classmates’ faces/names remained intact ▪ Match up names with faces also unimpaired ▪ Recall a name when given a person’s pictures was extensively impaired ▪ Rate of forgetting was similar to Ebbinghaus forgetting curve  Bahrick, 1984 Aim: ▪ Explored forgetting of foreign language taught at university Forgetting Task: Knowledge ▪ Tested graduates attending annual alumni reunion Results: ▪ Forgetting levels out after a period of 2 years ▪ Little forgetting after this period  Availability vs Accessibility Recall is generally worse after delays than recognition → A distinction should be made between: The item may not have a ▪ Availability: memory trace any more ▪ Is the item in memory store? The item may by stored ▪Accessibility: but not accessible ▪Is the item accessible for retrieval? Both may denote forgetting  Factors that Discourage Forgetting ▪ Better learning at the beginning ▪ Repeated attempts to retrieve – (testing effect/ generation effect) builds up resistance to forgetting (e.g., Linton, 1975) ▪ E.g., Linton (1975): effect of testing on personal memories Recalling an event reduces the rate of forgetting Data from Linton (1975)  Factors that Discourage Forgetting Incomplete or inaccurate retrieval may lead to memory distortions! ▪ But not all memories are equally vulnerable to forgetting at all points in their history – remember the forgetting curve! little additional forgetting later on as time goes by.  Factors that Discourage Forgetting Jost’s Law: ▪ All else equal, older memories are more durable and forgotten less rapidly than newer memories ▪ New memories are initially more vulnerable to disruption/distortion until they are consolidated  Consolidation Consolidation: The process that transforms new memories from a fragile state, in which they can be disrupted, to a more permanent state, in which they are resistant to disruption. / Reconsolidation: The process by which a During the reconsolidation a consolidated memory restabilises again memory is vulnerable to disruption. after being reactivated by reminders. until memories are consolidated , they are fragile and could be easily forgotten.  Consolidation & reconsolidation cycle cory a lot. stable helps more al ↑ -rehears Consolidation period Consolidated memory Present event/encoding More on this next R e m ind e r semester - Reconsolidation Cognitive Reconsolidated memory Neuroscience  IN CIDE NTAL FORG ET T IN G Causes  memories are weaker. goes by As time , 1. Trace decay – memories weaken due to passage of time Example: Facts your learned in school fade out of memory 2. Context shifts – different cues are available now than the Causes of ones available at encoding Incidental Example: School is a completely different context than now Forgetting 3. Interference – similar memories hinder retrieval Example: After a biology lecture you forgot what your learned in chemistry lecture an hour before  ▪ Memories gradually weaken because of the mere passage of time. ▪ Priming and familiarity especially prone to decay ▪ How does decay affect memories? Trace Decay ▪ A memory’s activations fade, but the memory itself is intact (stored & available but inaccessible) OR ▪ The memory itself and its elements (i.e., its associations) degrade along with its activity level.  § Synaptic connections degrade and neurons die as time goes by memories may die or fade in the same way § The opposite biological mechanism may also explain decay (Frankland et al., 2013): Trace Decay: § Neurogenesis (growth of new neurons – esp. in Biological basis hippocampus) means that the structure is remodeled and its connections are gradually modified § Good for new learning – generation of new associations § Bad for older memories retained in hippocampus  Behaviourally it is difficult to prove trace decay Trace Decay: Two important factors cannot be controlled when 1) Rehearsal 2) Interference Validity attributing forgetting to decay: from new experiences Memories unavailable or simply inaccessible?  Alternative factors of incidental forgetting Correlates of Time Forgetting may not be caused by the passage of time itself but by a correlate of time um by ↳ things that happen in parallel as time goes.  Alternative factors of incidental forgetting Correlates of Time Contextual fluctuation ▪ Similarity between encoding and retrieval context may explain forgetting. ▪ Incidental context differs more between retrieval and encoding over time. ▪ Incidental context is less similar to the are remote past than more recent past. - therefore there cues different.  Alternative factors of incidental forgetting Correlates of Time Contextual fluctuation Interference ▪ Similarity between encoding and ▪ Similar traces/memories impede retrieval. retrieval context may explain ▪ It is difficult to discriminate between them. forgetting. ▪ Similar memories accumulate more over time. ▪ Incidental context differs more ▪ Whenever the cue that can be used to access a between retrieval and encoding over memory becomes associated with other time. memories. ▪ Incidental context is less similar to the remote past than more recent past. I ↳ work/adult life. primary school Interference accumulation of memories.  Interference How does it work? ▪Competition Assumption: Memories associated to a shared cue automatically impede retrieval when the cue is presented. windne ▪ A cue activates all associates (more or less). Tur7 Miciations ▪ The activated associates compete for access to consciousness. at a ▪ Competitors hinder access to target memory. ▪ Interference occurs due to the negative effect of having competitors. Interference increase as competitors increase - ▪ It increases with the number of competitors a target memory has. In order to diminish interference , we need to diminish the amount of competitors.  Retroactive Proactive interference interference Interference The difficulty that in accessing the target is before the similar memory is known as retroactive memory Retroactive memory. Target memory Similar memory time When · similar is afte target memory. memory  Retroactive Proactive interference interference Interference the target The difficulty in accessing that after is the similar memory is called Proactive memory proactive interference. Similar memory Target memory time When similar is memory prior to target · memory. Retroactive Interference (RI) ▪ Introducing a new (second) memory impairs recall of a first memory (especially similar) engthens ▪ Especially strong interference if the two lists share cues ▪ More training on the second list results in more first list impairment fades ery older memory new ↑ Not every type of intervening experience impairs memory – the experience needs to be similar! Data from Barnes & Underwood (1959)  Baddeley & Hitch, 1977 Task: § Rugby players asked to recall the names of teams they played earlier in the season Retroactive Control: Interference: § Some players missed certain games, allowing discrimination of forgetting due to decay (time) vs interference from intervening Realistic games. memories Results: § Time was not good predictor of forgetting § Forgetting increased with the number of intervening games -  Baddeley & Hitch, 1977 increa, > - i n terrence Retroactive Interference: Realistic memories Conclusion: -times § Forgetting was due to interference rather than decay.. § New rugby games interfere with previous ones – making them less accessible. Time does not have much of an influence.  Proactive Interference (PI) ▪ The tendency of older memories to interfere with retrieval of recent experiences and knowledge ▪ The number of previous learning experiences (e.g., lists) determine the rate of forgetting of new ones ▪ PI is more severe for recall than recognition - lisinterferent as we havemoreaccess. - wenavenderenter memory to to Adapted For trying password after the amount from Underwood (1957) example , remember a new of old passwords you have stored in your brain. RI & PI: Summary RI & PI: Summary old Interference new Memory Loss Retroactive Learn A Learn B for A older newer memory hinders access to an. memory Interference old new Memory Loss Proactive Learn A Learn B for B older memory hinders access to a newer memory.  PHE N OME NA RE LATE D TO Other causes of IN TE RFE RE N CE forgetting  ▪The tendency for recall to be impaired by the provision of retrieval cues drawn from the same category of items in memory. ▪Providing hints may impede memory retrieval! ▪The impairments is more severe with increasing numbers of cues Part-set cuing provided from the same set. impairment How does this work? ▪ Presenting similar items as cues, strengthens their association to the cue. ▪ Competition for non-cues increases memory worsens!  need Part-set cuing: Example ↑ are meste Part-set cues Colleague's name? Ian Garry D Target memory ? ↳ cues these Rose hinder to Weakened access Strengthened associations association the target be memorythea get you thinking about other. things  Part-set cuing: Example assumed that set cues would help memory They part instead it did the opposite. retrieval but Slamecka, 1968 Part-set cues Elm Target memory Aspen Trees ? ▪ Oak Palm ▪ Maple ▪ Elm ▪ Pine ▪ Oak ▪ Beech ▪ Maple reduces recall Providing cues ▪ part-set Pine Result for target memory. ▪ Aspen ▪ Beech Providing cues (i.e. competitor items) reduced recall for the non-cued items (i.e. targets) ▪ Palm  Anderson et al., 1994 ▪ Selective/partial retrieval can harm recall of other memories related to the retrieved item Retrieval- ▪ Compared to baseline items for which no related items had Induced been retrieved Forgetting (RIF) ▪ This has important implications for learning and studying! ▪ Selective retrieval may contribute to more severe forgetting for information that is not practiced/retrieved  Retrieval-Induced Forgetting Anderson et al., 1994 FRUITS - FRUITS - DRINKS - DRINKS - Encoding ORANGE BANANA WINE GIN fruit Practice FRUITS - > can remember you or corancewaa - OR...... start with... FRUITS - FRUITS - DRINKS - DRINKS - Recall O...... B...... W...... G...... Y ↓ Practiced Non-practiced Ifyoudon't practice facitation a se memory a - Increased memory-diminishedry non-practiced memory. RIF: Implications E.g. Crime scene interrogations (Shaw, Bjork, & Handal, 1995) oTask: o Study Phase: o Watch a slideshow of a crime scene (a party where objects were stolen) o Retrieval Practice Phase: o Interrogate subjects about some of the objects in the slideshow oResults: o Interrogating people about some stolen items impaired memory for related items - oConclusion: o RIF may have important implications for how witnesses should be questioned  RIF: Implications & Conclusions o Retrieval (e.g., testing effect/retrieval practice) can be beneficial for strengthening memories BUT o Selective strengthening (i.e., incomplete retrieval): The benefits may diminish as it causes forgetting of other related things Why do we forget? A FUNCTIONAL ACCOUNT  Interference Mechanisms Mechanism Description Examples Associative Blocking A cue fails to elicit a target trace Tip-of-the-Tongue: keep coming up with because it repeatedly elicits a incorrect response Cue stronger competitor, leading people RI: cues elicit 2nd list blocking 1st to abandon efforts to retrieve target Part–set cuing: Exemplar cues keep intruding blocking Cue overload: More associates, more likely a wrong answer to intrude Competitor Target 44  Interference Mechanisms Mechanism Description Examples Associative Blocking A cue fails to elicit a target trace Tip-of-the-Tongue: keep coming up with because it repeatedly elicits a incorrect response Cue stronger competitor, leading people RI: cues elicit 2nd list blocking 1st to abandon efforts to retrieve target Part–set cuing: Exemplar cues keep intruding blocking Cue overload: More associates, more likely a wrong answer to intrude Competitor Target · when the competitor is punished. 45  Interference Mechanisms Mechanism Description Examples Associative Unlearning Associative bond linking a RIF & RI: Competitors intrude at Cue stimulus to a memory trace is retrieval practice and are punished punished by weakening it after being retrieved in error unlearned Difficult to demonstrate empirically Competitor Target · chea target is punished 46  Interference Mechanisms Mechanism Description Examples Associative Blocking A cue fails to elicit a target trace Tip-of-the-Tongue: keep coming up with because it repeatedly elicits a incorrect response Cue stronger competitor, leading RI: cues elicit 2nd list blocking 1st people to abandon efforts to retrieve target Part–set cuing: Exemplar cues keep intruding blocking Cue overload: More associates, more likely a wrong answer to intrude Competitor Target Both responsible for forgetting Associative Unlearning Associative bond linking a RIF & RI: Competitors intrude at retrieval Cue stimulus to a memory trace is practice and are punished punished by weakening it after being retrieved in error unlearned Difficult to demonstrate empirically Competitor Target 47  our mind. in order to diminish the competition in we forget ▪ Forgetting to control retrieval in the face of competition ▪ May serve a functional purpose and therefore can also be an active Functional process account of ▪ Facilitates future retrieval attempts of practiced/ strengthened forgetting memories by inhibiting competitors ▪ In this sense forgetting is beneficial! ▪ Serves goal-directed behavior and decision-making Forgetting promotes flexibility and generalisation -- Richards & Frankland, 2017 Memory should not be viewed as a means for high- fidelity transmission of information The goal of memory is to guide intelligent decision- making Forgetting allows individuals to exhibit flexible behaviour and generalize past events to new experiences From this perspective, forgetting is not necessarily a failure of memory It may represent an investment in a more optimal mnemonic strategy Functional View of Incidental Forgetting  Summary: Main points More forgetting initially but less additional forgetting at longer intervals Consolidation makes memories more resistant to forgetting Theory of decay over time Apart from decay, other factors may contribute to forgetting: context shifts, interference Retroactive interference and proactive interference Retrieval induced forgetting: remembering can cause forgetting Part-set cuing: when part of set is presented disrupts retrieval of the remaining Forgetting can be adaptive in order to increase cognitive efficiency This week’s reading Baddley, Eyesenck, Anderson (2020). Memory. Chapter 9 (pages 277 – 307)