PS 214: Gender Development (II) PDF

Esther Mercado Garrido [email protected] Evolutionary Approaches Biosocial Theory Social Identity Theory Kohlberg’s Cognitive Developmental Theory Gender Schema Theory Males and females are physically different: Adult males are typically taller, heavier and more mus...

Esther Mercado Garrido [email protected] Evolutionary Approaches Biosocial Theory Social Identity Theory Kohlberg’s Cognitive Developmental Theory Gender Schema Theory Males and females are physically different: Adult males are typically taller, heavier and more muscular than adult females Females have higher % body fat, may be hardier in the sense that they tend to live longer (Giampaoli, 2000) Physical differences fairly obvious, but the evidence for sex differences in psychological functioning is not as clear as many would think. Actual Psychological Differences Between the Sexes: Classic study (Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974) reviewed >1,500 studies comparing males and females They concluded that few traditional stereotypes have any basis Verbal ability: Girls display greater verbal abilities than boys on many measures Girls acquire language and develop verbal skills at an earlier age than boys (Bornstein & Hayes, 1998) Mathematical Ability: Boys show a small but consistent advantage over girls on tests of arithmetic reasoning Girls more likely to adopt learning than performance goals, work harder and earn better grades (Kennedy-Benson et al., 2006) Boys feel more self-efficacious in maths than girls (Simpkins et al., 2006)  Men and women faced different evolutionary pressures Natural selection created fundamental differences between males and females that determined gender divisions in labour Men and women have different mating strategies Males - ensure genes survive by mating with multiple partners Evolved in ways that made them competitive, assertive and aggressive – increase chances of attracting mates Boys engage in more rough-and-tumble play, higher levels of impulsivity Females must invest much more to achieve same objective Evolved in ways that would make them kind, caring, gentle, establish positive social relations, girls engage in more “play parenting” Evolutionary theories propose that males and females are psychologically similar except in areas where they have faced different adaptive problems males need good visual/spatial skills for hunting females - greater impulse control, cooperative – gain assistance with child care  This theory cannot be tested Largely ignores sex differences that are limited to particular cultures or historical periods Social Roles Hypothesis: psychological sex differences do not reflect biologically evolved dispositions. Instead, they emerge due to Roles assigned by culture Agreed-upon socialisation tactics to promote certain traits Many researchers argue biological and social influences interact. Males and females differ in biological factors: Genetic factors (Y chromosome – different characteristics) Hormonal balance (Males have higher concentrations of androgens, such as testosterone and lower levels of estrogen) Interactive theory: These biological factors interact with social influences which steer boys and girls towards different paths of behaviour and gender roles  A number of critical events affect person’s preference for male/female gender role Firstly, at conception, child inherits X or Y chromosome from father Sex chromosomes determine whether testes or ovaries form Newly formed gonads determine the outcomes of the second event Testes in male embryo secrete testosterone, and Mullerian inhibiting substance (MIS), which inhibits development of female organs In the absence of these hormones, embryo develops female reproductive system Thirdly, after 3-4 months, secretion of testosterone leads to development penis and scrotum Testosterone alters nervous system and brain development (e.g., prevents hormones in a cyclical pattern so they do not experience menstrual cycles at puberty)  Social factors immediately come into play when child is born Parents, other adults react to child based on sex Biological factors during puberty Growth of reproductive system, appearance of secondary sex characteristics and development of sexual urges These events, combined with early self-concept as male/female, provides the basis for adult gender identity. But, how much is nature and how much is nurture?  How much influence do biological factors have on the behaviour of males and females? Genetic and hormonal influences Genetic Influences: Genetic factors may contribute to some sex differences in personality, cognitive abilities and social behaviour Developmental disorders more common in boys (X-linked recessive traits) (Only need to inherit one recessive gene to be affected) Behavioural genetics studies on adolescent twins Genotype accounts for approx. 50% of differences in people’s masculine self- concepts 0-20% in feminine self-concepts Hormonal Influences Biological influences become clearer in studies of children who have been exposed to the “wrong” hormones during the prenatal period Androgens: class of hormones that normally occur at higher levels in males than females that affect physical development and functioning from prenatal period onwards Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH): rare genetic defect - adrenal glands produce high levels of androgens in genetic females (XX) from prenatal period onward Tomboys, prefer boys’ toys and activities (despite praise/encouragement to play with girls toys) when compared to their sisters and other girls Swedish study: more severe cases of CAH showed strongest interest in masculine toys and careers – dose-related effect (Servin et al., 2003) Hormones may affect brain organization Heavy prenatal exposure to male sex hormones can influence the attitudes, interests and activities in females  Biological factors steer boys and girls towards different activities. But, social-labelling influences are so important that they can modify or even reverse biological predispositions (Money & Ehrhardt, 1972) Discovery/correction of CAH (surgery/gender reassignment) presents few adjustment problems if gender reassignment occurs before 18 months After 3 – gender reassignment is exceedingly difficult Genetic females have already labelled themselves as boys, experienced prolonged masculine gender typing “Sensitive period” for establishment of gender identity Other investigators have claimed it is also possible to assume a new identity later in adolescence  Most societies encourage instrumental traits (dominant, competitive, assertive) in males and expressive traits (kind, sensitive, cooperative) in females Are traditional gender roles the natural order of things? Many cultures have different expectations of girls and boys Margaret Mead (1935) studied 3 tribal societies in New Guinea Arapesh: both males and females - cooperative, nonaggressive and sensitive (typically feminine traits) Mundungumor: both males and females – assertive, aggressive, emotionally unresponsive (typically masculine traits) Tchambuli: males – passive, emotionally dependent; females – dominant, independent and assertive (opposite) Social forces contribute heavily to gender-typing  In sum: Biological and Social factors interact Stresses the importance of early biological developments that influence how parents and others label a child at birth and that affect behaviour Whether children are socialized as boys or girls strongly influences their gender-role development Criticism: The theory does not specify the precise social processes that contribute to emerging gender identities and gender- typed patterns of behaviour  Bandura (1989): a social learning interpretation of gender typing (observing, modelling, imitating behaviours) Children acquire gender identities and gender-role preferences in 2 ways: Direct Tuition Observational Learning Direct tuition: child encouraged and rewarded for gender-appropriate behaviours, and punished/otherwise discouraged for behaviours considered inappropriate. Parents already actively encourage gender-appropriate activities and discourage cross-gender play by around age 2 (Leinbach, 1989), before children have acquired basic gender identities Peers differentially reinforce gender-typed attitudes  Observational learning: child adopts attitudes and behaviours of same-sex models Boys will see which behaviours, activities and toys are “for boys” and girls learn which behaviours, activities and toys are “for girls” Selectively attend to and imitate peers, teachers, older siblings and parent of same sex Parents with non-traditional gender roles have children who are less aware of gender stereotypes, similar for boys who have sisters, or girls who have brothers Some research has shown that preschool children may be more concerned with sex-appropriateness of the behaviour rather than model 4-5 year old boys will play with “boy toys” even after they have seen a girl playing with them, but are reluctant to play with “girls toys” that boy models have played with earlier (Martin et al., 1995) Toy choices are affected more by the labels attached to those toys than by the sex of the child who modelled the behaviour Observational learning becomes more apparent when the child learns that gender is constant, avoid toys and activities other-sex peers enjoy  Helps explain why girls and boys adopt traditional gender roles even when parents may not want them to! Major themes: Gender-role development depends on cognitive development – children must acquire certain understandings about gender before they are influenced by their social experiences Children actively socialize themselves – not passive Social Learning theory proposed that children learn to do “boy” or “girl” things because their parents encourage these activities. They come to identify with or imitate same-sex models and thereby acquire stable gender identity But! Kohlberg proposes the opposite… He believed that children: First establish a stable gender identity Then actively seek out same-sex models and other information to learn how act like a boy/girl  Children pass through 3 stages as they acquire a mature understanding of what it means to be male/female: Basic Gender Identity – children label themselves as boys/girls Gender Stability – gender perceived as stable over time Gender Consistency – gender is stable across situations, at 5-7 years, no longer fooled by appearances Gender Self-socialization : process through which children’s biases to behave in accordance with their gender identity is strengthened by their greater attention to and involvement with entities and activities deemed appropriate to their gender Kohlberg believed this occurs after children attain gender consistency  Studies conducted in 20 different cultures reveal preschool children do proceed through these 3 stages of gender identity Gender consistency is clearly associated with other relevant aspects of cognitive development (e.g., conservation of liquid and mass) – conservation of gender More stereotypic play preferences displayed when mature gender identity is reached – support for theory Major problem with Kohlberg’s theory: Gender typing is well under way before the child acquires a mature gender identity 2 year olds already prefer-same sex toys 3 year olds have learned many gender-role stereotypes and prefer same-sex activities and playmates Gender reassignment is exceedingly difficult after age of 3 Children’s thinking about gender-role stereotypes appears to be more closely related to their levels of gender stability (rather than gender consistency) Children are actually become more flexible in their thinking about gender stereotypes once they reach gender consistency Overstates necessity of mature understanding of gender in order for gender typing to begin  Martin & Halverson (1981, 1987) proposed an information-processing theory of gender-typing Like Kohlberg, they believe children are highly motivated to acquire interests, values and behaviours consistent with their boy/girl self- image They argue that self-socialization begins as soon as the child acquires basic gender identity (2-3 years), and is well under way by 6 or 7  Martin and Halverson believed that establishing a basic gender identity motivates a child to learn about the sexes and to incorporate this information into gender schemas Gender Schemas: organised sets of beliefs and expectations about males and females that influence the kinds of information attended to, elaborated and remembered First, children acquire a simple “in-group/out-group” schema In-group/out-group schema: one’s knowledge of the mannerisms, roles, activities and behaviours that characterize males and females (e.g., trucks are for boys, girls can cry but boys should not etc.) This initial categorization of objects and activities clearly affects children ’s thinking E.g., 4-5 year olds shown unfamiliar neutral toys – use labels to guide their thinking Boys liked “boy” toys better than the girls did, and children assumed other boys would like those toys more than the girls, and same found for girls “gender detectives who search for cues about gender” (Martin & Ruble, 2004)  Own sex schema: consists of detailed information they will need to perform various gender-consistent behaviour. Serve as scripts for processing social information Children encode and remember information consistent with gender schemas and forget schema inconsistent information (or otherwise distort it to become consistent with their stereotypes). Especially true at around 6-7 when stereotyped knowledge and preferences are particularly strong Can recall an action but alter the scene to conform to stereotypes E.g., if told a story about a girl chopping wood, they will distort the information and recall that it had been a boy that was chopping wood (Martin & Halverson ,1983) Describes how gender stereotypes might originate and persist over time