Lecture 4 PDF: Women's Political Participation

Current situation: social, cultural and political practices Dr. Shinique Walters, Department of Government Objective The impact of social, cultural and political practices on prospective female political candidates, Historical perspectives on voting trends; Elect...

Current situation: social, cultural and political practices Dr. Shinique Walters, Department of Government Objective The impact of social, cultural and political practices on prospective female political candidates, Historical perspectives on voting trends; Electioneering; Political party and Community support; Importance of Networking The Personal is Political The personal is political, also called the private is political, political slogan expressing a common belief among feminists that the personal experiences of women are rooted in their political situation and gender inequality (Carol Hanisch, 1970) Hanisch’s essay focused on men’s power and women’s oppression; for example, if a particular woman is being abused by a male partner, then societal oppression of women is an important factor in explaining this abuse. The statement sometimes is misinterpreted, however, as the opposite—that women’s personal behaviour is of political significance. The Personal is Political Hanisch argues that these consciousness-raising groups were a form of political action. She emphasizes on the fact that any relationship that has a power dynamic is a political relationship, even if it is within the realm of the ‘domestic’. The realization for women that their personal problems had a bigger political dimension associated with it, was an important milestone of the second wave. This was in response to broader accusations that women were responsible for their own situation. The Personal is Political Does this then mean that all personal actions or decisions that a woman makes, is a part of a greater political ideology or movement? And if so, where does one draw the line? Second wave feminists were often attacked for making choices like wearing makeup and waxing body hair as submitting to patriarchal oppressive measures. Lets share examples of what we consider to be the personal is political? Public and Political Life: Themes and the International Legal Framework Women continue to experience significant discrimination related to their participation in public and political life in most domains of the public sphere and in all geographical regions There are significant barriers to women’s participation in public and political life that stem from economic, social and cultural issues, as well as from negative stereotypes about women and entrenched gender roles. Public and Political Life: Themes and the International Legal Framework One key issue, when conceptualizing gender discrimination within the public sphere, is the issue of how public and private space are differently gendered. For over two decades, feminist scholars have been working to dismantle the divide between public and private space While at the international level, there is increasing consensus about the obligations of States to address the barriers to women’s full and active participation in the public sphere; at the domestic level, there is still progress to be made in advancing women’s equality in this domain. National legislation and constitutions adversely affect women’s participation in public and political life in some states by limiting women’s participation through exclusionary or discriminatory clauses, thus restricting women’s ability to fully engage in the public sphere Public and Political Life: Themes and the International Legal Framework Another important theme is how entrenched gender roles and negative stereotyping can act as a persistent practical hurdle to women’s participation in political and public life. Entrenched gender roles and stereotypes serve to reinforce discrimination against women through the persistence of harmful norms, practices and traditions, and patriarchal attitudes regarding the roles, responsibility and identities of women and men in all spheres of life This phenomenon is identified as the “sexual division of labor”, which is reflected in the lack of an equitable division of labor in the family Public and Political Life: Themes and the International Legal Framework In addition to women’s caregiver responsibilities, women’s participation in political and public life can be significantly limited by patriarchal culture, where women are not considered socially fit to enter politics. Political violence and harassment against women can significantly limit their capacity to engage in public and political life. It is increasingly clear that violence against women not only affects women in the private sphere, but also can hinder their participation in the public sphere and in political life Public and Political Life: Themes and the International Legal Framework Intersectionality is a key theme when considering discrimination against women, as women may encounter overlapping forms of discrimination that reinforce their marginalization and unequal access to public and political space. These intersectional forms of discrimination may include their status as indigenous or minority women, migrant women or women with precarious citizenship status, women from the lesbian, bisexual, trans and queer community, and rural women, among others. The Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences has recently stated that multiple and intersecting forms of violence have contributed to and exacerbated violence against women The International Human Rights Legal Regime Equality for women in public and political life is an obligation for all regimes as well as being a prior condition for the legitimacy of democratic regimes, as well as their responsibility and obligation The principle of the right to equality and the prohibition of discrimination, which are at the basis of women’s access to public and political life, are enshrined in the founding document of the UN, The United Nations Charter Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) The Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) is the leading instrument to address women’s human rights, with most states having signed or ratified it and participating in the reporting process The definition of discrimination contained in Article 1 of CEDAW encompasses any difference in treatment made on the basis of sex, which intentionally or in practice, places women in a position of disadvantage, and impairs the full recognition of their rights in the public and private spheres Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) This prohibition of discrimination extends to domains that limit the full exercise of women’s right to participate in public and political life. Article 7 is particularly relevant to the rights of women in the field of political participation, including their right to be elected to public office, to fully participate in the public functions and service in their countries, and the right to vote This right should be read in combination with Article 8, which provides that States must ensure that women can have the opportunity to represent their governments at the international level, and to participate in the work of international organizations free from any form of discrimination Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) CEDAW Committee has identified a set of obligations States have in order to fully guarantee women’s rights to political participation, including the adoption of general positive measures and temporary special measures to ensure that women have the right to participate fully in public policy formulation in senior level positions; that their right to vote is incorporated in their constitutions and/or legislation; that groups representing the rights of women have adequate participation spaces; to address public attitudes that discriminate against women and discourage their involvement in political, and public life; and to ensure the presence of women in all areas of international affairs Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) CEDAW also requires States to ensure that women have equal opportunities to represent their governments at the international level and to participate in the work of international organizations The CEDAW Committee understands gender equality as a principle, which provides that “all human beings, regardless of sex, are free to develop their personal abilities, pursue their professional careers and make choices without the limitations set by stereotypes, rigid gender roles and prejudices.” Access to the public space Women’s right to equal access to the public space is derived from their equal right to all the political and civil rights and the economic, social and cultural rights secured under international human rights law The obligation of states to secure women’s right of equal access to public space has not been fully implemented. There is continuing discrimination in law and/or state practice that limits women’s right to full and equal access to public space. For example, cultural practice in some regions still requires that women have a male guardian in public space Access to the public space Although women are seen on the street, it is often not a welcoming place for them, where they can be vulnerable and subject to sexual harassment. Social norms in Morocco also dictate that people would generally not defend a woman alone in the street if she experienced harassment, especially if she were young The imposition of restrictive dress can also limit women’s right of equal access to public space Women’s right to access the public space may be limited by women’s inability to participate in justice processes. In some communities, women are unable to access legal systems without the assistance of a male relative. For example, in some countries, such as Timor Leste, it is customary practice that a woman does not speak on her own behalf in local disputes Access to the public space Women are also discriminated against when they are limited from accessing certain sections of public space, or when their presence in public space is regulated by rules about where they are or are not allowed to be. The case of the Israeli Supreme Court ruling against segregation on buses illustrates this point. In 2011, the Court ruled that gender segregation on public buses was unlawful. While the practice is still condoned on a voluntary basis, so long as all parties consent to it, prior to the ruling female passengers were frequently harassed and forced to move to the back of the bus New Political Spaces: Cyberspace, ICTs and Social Media While women’s participation in formal public and political life remains important, there is increasing recognition that political decision- making occurs within a continuum of formal and informal spaces and institutions. The Internet has the capacity to open new public and political spaces, by allowing new discourses to flourish, giving powerful voice to previously marginalized communities for anti-discrimination and gender equality. New Political Spaces: Cyberspace, ICTs and Social Media These new forms of political participation raise the question of how these emerging political action repertoires impact patterns of inequality. The significance of socio-economic resources such as education, for example, might diminish when considering informal participation because the entry costs of signing a petition are lower than the costs of joining a political party. The gender equality gap is also diminished by the rise of these new forms of political participation. New Political Spaces: Cyberspace, ICTs and Social Media A new concern when considering the rise of ICTs in public and political life is the question of anonymity. The possibility of functioning anonymously online can help women to invent safe spaces in which to mobilize and communicate. The case of lesbian feminist Lebanese women using anonymity online to mobilize was key to their movement and became a defining aspect of the Lebanese experience of being a lesbian Women also face barriers in access to membership and leadership positions within trade unions. Barriers include women’s lack of knowledge about the benefits of trade union membership, fear of reprisals by employers and lack of time due to family responsibilities. New Political Spaces: Cyberspace, ICTs and Social Media Where there has been progress in gender equality in trade unions, it is often a result of strong ‘women structures’ within the union: the sum of women’s collectives and posts within a union, such as women’s caucuses, committees, networks and meetings Political Participation Political participation has traditionally been broadly understood according to three factors: the right to choose the political leadership of the country, the right to be a participant in the political leadership and the gender sensitivity of the political decision-making mechanisms. There is widespread state practice that gives women an equal right to vote, enshrined in almost all constitutions and also gaining the status of customary international law. Voter turnout among women is also climbing. In India, more women than men voted in recent elections held in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Manipur, Uttarakhand, and Goa Political Participation Despite this success, there exist a number of cultural barriers to women voting or taking part in public debate. While women may be constitutionally eligible to vote, there are cases where women are prevented from exercising their own choice due to cultural or family pressures. For example, in parts of Eastern Europe, especially those with large minorities in which traditional gender roles persist, a phenomenon called ‘family voting’ exists, where men as family heads vote or attempt to vote for all the women in the family, including wives, adult daughters and mothers. In family voting practice, men exercise voting rights in place of all women in a family, entering the poll booth together and filling out the ballot allotted to the women The Right to Take Part in Public Debate Women’s participation in political life must include women’s access to and participation in public debate. States are often very resistant to demands for change from women’s human rights activists, because these activists denounce the existing practices of the regime, often in contexts of military conflict and authoritarianism, and because they are often seen as challenging ‘traditional’ notions of the family Women defenders are often the target of gender-specific violence, such as verbal abuse based on their sex, or sexual abuse and rape; may experience intimidation, attacks, death threats and killings by family and community members; or may experience judicial consequences, such as arrest. The Right to Participate in Political Life The right to participate in political life, and particularly in leadership, applies to the position of the Head of Government; national parliaments; local government, including mayoral positions; the judiciary; state boards; councils; and office holders in the civil service. Women have succeeded less in reaching high levels of participation in political life than they have in economic and social life. However, the expansion of women’s formal political representation across most regions ranks among the most significant trends in international politics of the last 100 years Frances Raday, concept note definition Barriers to Women’s Participation in Political Life In many countries, there is resistance to women’s political participation because of prevailing gender norms questioning women’s ability to lead. For example, women may be underrepresented in politics because of perceptions that they are less qualified or do not possess sufficient leadership skills. These stereotypes are linked to women’s roles as caregivers. Many women are unable to balance family and public life and are not granted support from their spouses and families. Women are also still responsible for the majority of childcare and household tasks in many countries. The long hours, lack of flexible working patterns and the lack of part time roles can be practical bars to women’s participation in public and political life. Barriers to Women’s Participation in Political Life A lack of financial resources can significantly hinder women’s participation in political life. Women frequently lack access to political party funding and financial resources for their election bids, and must pay for the advertising costs of their campaigns. Women often experience violence and sexual harassment at the ground level in political parties, which can make their participation dangerous. Male bonding and persistent stereotypical attitudes towards women can also discriminate against women. For example, in India, women’s participation as candidates in national and state elections has declined because it is difficult for women to establish a foothold without patronage from powerful men in the party Barriers to Women’s Participation in Political Life Another significant barrier that women face is a lack of experience and knowledge. Political parties may avoid female candidates because they come with fewer campaign resources and links to influential constituencies. A lack of knowledge can also lead to women being overlooked Recommendations Recommendations for Governments Eliminate all continuing discriminatory laws Provide clear and explicit provisions within the constitution and legislation of the State on gender equality and non-discrimination against women Ensure ratification and integration within national law of other relevant international human rights and legal instruments Implement constitutional reform to ensure gender equality framework Ensure an inclusive process and extensive consultation of all stakeholders, including civil society and women’s organizations Recommendations for Governments Ensure that the constitution explicitly permits the possibility of taking positive actions to promote gender equality Ensure the constitution corresponds with international legal obligations Improve training on gender equality for practitioners in the field of police, civil servants, and judiciary, and in national education curriculums Ensure gender-responsive national budgets and development plans Ensure that women and men have equal opportunities during election campaigns, such as providing public funding, access to the state media, setting campaign spending limits, and ensuring that campaign finances and expenditures are disclosed Recommendations for Governments Adopt multi-sectoral strategies to improve women’s access to education, employment, health, social security, and other fundamental economic, social and cultural rights Ensure that policies designed to promote women’s participation include accountability measures Involve the media in promoting a culture of gender equality that combats gender-based stereotypes Adopt awareness-raising initiatives in the media to address prevailing gender- based social stereotypes Adopt educational strategies around women’s human rights and women’s role in public and political life Recommendations for Governments Ensure that the condition and position of women who face multiple forms of discrimination improve and take all measures to facilitate the elimination of discrimination against these women. Develop comprehensive data compilation methodology and include relevant sex-disaggregated statistics, to assess trends and impact of programmes. Guarantee that women obtain an adequate legal remedy when their right to participate in public and political life free from discrimination is violated Establish and/or expand skills training and capacity-building for women and girls, and women’s non-governmental organizations on new forms of ICT Ensure accessible, affordable childcare and facilities for women involved in public and political life (and parental leave, where relevant) Recommendations for Parliaments Finalize the process of withdrawal of the reservations to CEDAW and begin process of legislative reform to meet obligations under CEDAW Bring legislation in the area of marriage, family, inheritance and personal status law in line with international human rights standards Introduce legislation to prevent and protect women from all forms of gender- based violence Improve access and knowledge of CEDAW and its optional protocol Introduce legislation on specific measures aimed at promoting women’s representation in elected public bodies at all levels Remove legislation that may hinder women’s equal participation Recommendations for Parliaments Implement mechanisms for the monitoring and evaluation of political parties regarding gender policies and practices Seek to achieve gender parity in all decision-making bodies, by establishing incremental time-bound targets for increasing women’s representation Strengthen national women’s machineries to ensure the effective implementation, monitoring and mainstreaming of national, regional and international commitments on gender equality Recommendations for Parliaments Enact special measures to guarantee women access to the legislature and decision–making positions, including through legislated quotas within a proportional representation system or reserved seats within majoritarian systems with specific and effective sanctions for non- compliance. Recommendations for Political Parties Develop mechanisms or special measures to increase the number of women in party leadership and decision-making positions Implement effective gender quotas with the aim of achieving equitable representation of women in elected positions Allocate equal and adequate resources for women’s political campaigns and electoral processes Adopt clear and transparent rules to ensure internal democracy, with attention to gender equality Provide clear rules for candidate selection to allow or meaningful input from party members in the process of selecting candidates Promote women’s candidacies through the adoption of special training programmes, recruitment and financial incentives Recommendations for Civil Society Organizations Build alliances with men and other women’s organizations to promote women’s participation in public and political life Conduct training on existing national and international legal norms to facilitate their implementation Hold government, legislatures and political parties accountable for progress in increasing women’s participation and representation Develop monitoring plans to evaluate and assess governments of their implementation of commitments related to gender equality Strengthen civic and citizenship training in schools and continuing adult education regarding gender equality and non-discrimination Facilitate women’s education regarding new forms of communication technology such as the Internet and enable women in developing countries to have access to and use of new technologies, for their empowerment Recommendations for Civil Society Organizations Provide financial and technical support to build women’s capacity for political participation Build partnerships with government, private sector and civil society to advance women’s participation in public and political life Engage in information and data-collection efforts related to women’s participation in public and political life at all levels Promote women’s participation and interests at critical moments in political settlements, and at the highest levels of power.