Lecture 2 2023: Psychology Lecture Notes PDF

Scientific Approach to Behaviour KEY CONCEPTS 1. Create your StudentVolunteer.ie profile – scan QR code. 2. Browse and apply for volunteer opportunities. 3. Log your volunteer hours through your StudentVolunteer.ie profile. 4. Your volunteer supervisor will approve your volunteer hours. 5. Final...

Scientific Approach to Behaviour KEY CONCEPTS 1. Create your StudentVolunteer.ie profile – scan QR code. 2. Browse and apply for volunteer opportunities. 3. Log your volunteer hours through your StudentVolunteer.ie profile. 4. Your volunteer supervisor will approve your volunteer hours. 5. Final step: to apply for your PVA – complete your reflective portfolio at pva.ul.ie – on or before 26th April 2024 Save the date: Volunteer Week is 31st October to 3rd November 2023 Contact us at: [email protected] Announcements Tutorials start this week: Check resources to confirm your assigned tutorial SONA: • 8 credits needed. • Visit https://ul-psych.sona-systems.com/Default.aspx?ReturnUrl=/ • Sign-in with UL account Communications: • Office Hours : 15:00 – 17:00 (use Sign-up through Groups or email during this hours) • Office Hours and the SULIS discussion forum are the best way to get your queries answered. Emails may not be answered. Last Week’s Data: What is Psychology? How and why we behave the way we do, and how external and internal factors affect the way we think and behave Understanding how the mind works, why people do certain things and how that affects society and the world around us. The study and science of human behaviour and how the brain works how the mind controls our behaviour and emotions Last Week’s Data: Expectations I want to learn more about different personalities, what affects them and how they are shaped Gain a greater understanding of psychological concepts & theories to widen my knowledge on the subject overall.. I would like to gain an understanding into how the human mind functions, and what causes and fixes mental health problems How to mind read Serial killer's psychological thinking Today’s Learning Outcomes 1. Understand the scientific philosophy behind psychological research 2. Explain what is meant by an independent variable, dependent variable, confounding variable 3. Discuss differences between correlational and experimental designs. 4. Explain between-subjects, within-subjects, and mixed designs 5. Explain what is meant by “validity” in scientific research Purpose of Research Psychologists have three main goals when doing research: ◦ To find ways to measure and describe behavior ◦ To understand why, when, and how events occur ◦ To apply this knowledge to solving real-world problems Psychology & Empiricism • Empiricism is “the premise that knowledge should be acquired through observation” ◦ Conclusions of scientific psychology should (!) be based on careful, systemic observation, not on speculation or “common sense”. ◦ Naïve versus critical. ◦ Empiricism is an important part of the scientific method because theories and hypotheses must be observed and tested to be considered accurate. Psychology & Empiricism Positivism Empirical Constructivism Reality is independent of observer, and Realities are constructed in social ways can be ‘captured’ by science Scientific methods will reveal the ‘Truth’ about reality The acceptance of scientific theories involves empirical adequacy rather than truth Philosophy of Mind Dualism: Mental phenomenon are in some respect “non-physical” • Rene Descartes: The mind (i.e. consciousness/self-awareness) is distinct from the brain (i.e. “intelligence”) • Rejected by most psychologists today Monoism: The mind and the body manifest from a single substance • Materialism/Physicalism: Mental states must be physical states • Non-reductionist form: Mental states cannot be reduced to behaviour or brain states The case of Phineas Gage The Scientific Method Psychologists use the scientific method to conduct their research. The scientific method is a standardized way of making observations, gathering data, forming theories, testing predictions, and interpreting results. • Researchers make observations to describe and measure behaviour. • After observing certain events repeatedly, researchers come up with a theory that explains them. • Researchers develop/refine a theory after they have collected evidence (data) and reproduced research results. Theories A Good Theory A good theory must do two things: organize many observations in a logical way and allow researchers to come up with clear predictions to check the theory. A theory is… ◦ An organised set of concepts that explains & predicts a phenomenon or set of phenomena A theory often: ◦ Accounts for ‘data’ ◦ Generates new hypotheses Operational Definitions Stress and Aggression Theory & Hypothesis  Theory example: Exposure to acts of aggression leads to aggression  Hypothesis example: Playing violent videogames leads to aggression in teenagers  Operationalizations? Can we “see” these constructs?  How can we ‘operationalize’ the constructs? What’s a variable? ◦ A factor that varies in amount/kind ◦ Age, eye colour, nationality… ◦ In psychology - examples: ◦ Personality ◦ Affect (e.g., mood, emotion) ◦ Aggression ◦ Life satisfaction Type of Variables INDEPENDENT VARIABLE (IV) DEPENDENT VARIABLE (DV)  Observable stimulus that causes something (cognition, affect, behaviour)  Observable response by a person (i.e., cognition, affect, behaviour): the measure  Manipulated by the researcher because it is assumed to lead to changes in cognition, affect, or behaviour  Values are assumed to depend on values of independent variable; theoretically (predicted) Test Yourself  Read the slide first together.  Submit your response afterwards.  https://strawpoll.com/NoZr3N0ANy3 Qualitative Approaches Scientific Approach to Behaviour RESEARCH DESIGN & VALIDITY Correlational Research Correlational Research: Looking for Associations ◦ A correlation exists when two variables are related to each other. Measuring Correlation ◦ A correlation coefficient = numerical index of the degree of association that exists between two variables. ◦ It provides two pieces of information: 1. How strongly related two variables are. 2. The direction (positive or negative) of the relationship. Correlational Research • Positive Correlations “indicate that two variables covary in the same direction.” ◦ High scores on variable x are related to high scores on variable y, and low scores on variable x are related to low scores on variable y. • Negative Correlations “indicate that two variables covary in the opposite direction.” ◦ High scores on variable x are related to low scores on variable y. Correlational Research •Strength of the correlation is indicated by the size of the correlation coefficient. Strong negative Weak/None Strong positive Correlational Research Common methods of finding correlations between variables ◦ Surveys – “structured questionnaires designed to solicit information about specific aspects of participants’ behaviors” ◦ Naturalistic observation – “careful observation of behavior without intervening directly with the subjects” ◦ Case studies – “in-depth investigation of an individual participant” Correlational Research Advantages of using correlations: ◦Correlations allow investigation of a broader array of psychological phenomena than is possible in experimental research. Disadvantages of using correlations: ◦ Correlations only tell us that two variables are related, not how the two variables are related. ◦ Thus, we cannot determine cause and effect from correlations alone. Correlational is not Causation The number of ice creams sold on a given day correlates with the number of drowning events on that day. ◦ x could be causing changes in y, ◦ y could be causing changes in x, or ◦ z, a third variable, could be causing changes in x and y. Experiments (Causal) An experiment is a study where at least one variable is manipulated while at least one other variable is measured. An experiment tries to test “cause-and-effect” associations between two (or more) variables (It’s still almost never conclusive) Experiments: Examples ◦ Famous study by Asch on conformity What did Asch manipulate experimentally? ◦ He manipulated the answers given by the ‘confederates’. What did Asch measure? ◦ He measured conformity - quantified as the number of times the participant gave the incorrect answer when it was clearly incorrect. Experiments & Other Methods  Experimental methods  Non-experimental methods  Lab experiment  Field experiment  Quasi-experiments  Field studies  Surveys  Interviews  Psychological tests  Computer simulations Two Central Features of Experiments A) Researcher has control over procedure ◦ Manipulation of IV, all other variables are constant (if not consider confounding variables, see later) ◦ This means: All participants are treated the same (constant), except for variations of the IV so that ‘effect’ can be attributed to IV B) Random assignment to the levels of the IV ◦ Participants have equal chance of being in one or other group ◦ Otherwise existing differences may be responsible for the effect you observe Experimental Research Design Between-participants design IV: different levels for different groups of participants Simple design: 2 groups of participants: treatment group versus control group Within-participants design IV: different levels for same participants; two treatment levels Experimental Research Design Mixed design  One IV = between-participants variation (e.g., videogames: violent vs. peaceful)  One IV = within-participants variation (e.g., videogames: with low noise levels vs. with high noise levels), i.e., they play twice but with varying another feature of videogames: noise level Experimental Research Design Let’s look at Brady and Matthews’ example: ◦ Randomly assigned to play: ◦ The Simpsons: Hit and Run ◦ OR ◦ Grand Theft Auto III Experimental Research Design: Between-Participants Design Group A (50 participants) Group B (50 participants) DV Each participant is randomly assigned to only one of the groups. Also called “between-groups”, “between-subjects”, or “between-participants” design. The participant plays EITHER the Simpsons or Grand Theft Auto. Experimental Research Design: Within-Participants Design Time 1 Time 2 50 participants DV DV 50 participants Each participant is assigned to both groups. Also called “within-groups” or “within-subjects” design. Altogether: mixed! The participant plays BOTH the Simpsons and Grand Theft Auto. Quasi-Experimental Research Design Time 1 Time 2 Men DV Women Between-groups variable: Sex (men vs. women) Within-groups variable: Video game DV Internal Validity Validity of the assumption that IV causes DV ◦ That the confederates answers caused the conformity ◦ That violent videogames caused the aggression Internal validity also reflects that a given study makes it possible to eliminate alternative explanations for a finding External Validity Can causal relationships between IV and DV be generalized (to other situations, e.g., outside of the lab)?  Sample: Participants only students? Participants only Irish?  Context: Studies only conducted in lab? Studies only conducted in rainy weather?  Experiments must be reproduced in different sample across various settings  Note: external validity cannot be high if internal validity is low! Threats to validity  Some examples…  Social desirability  Expectancy effects/researcher expectations  Demand characteristics  Placebo effects  How can we solve this… Single vs. Double-Blind Single-blind ◦ The participant is blind to (unaware of) the condition they are in (e.g., whether they are in the drug treatment group or placebo group) Q: Why is this important? Double-blind ◦ The participant AND the experimenter are blind to the condition each participant is in (e.g., when the researcher administers the treatment they do not know if it is the drug treatment or placebo treatment) Q: Why is this important? Revisiting Learning Outcomes 1. Understand the scientific philosophy behind psychological research 2. Explain what is meant by an independent variable, dependent variable, confounding variable 3. Discuss differences between correlational and experimental designs. 4. Explain between-subjects, within-subjects, and mixed designs 5. Explain what is meant by “validity” in scientific research Reading Psychology 2e: • Chapter 2: Psychological Research Computer Game Study (See Brightspace content): • Brady, S. S., & Matthews, K. A. (2006). Effects of media violence on health-related outcomes among young men. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 160(4), 341-347.