Behavioural Science Notes - Biological Bases, Research & Genetics

**WEEK 2- Biological bases of mental life and behaviour** **Neurons** **What is a neuron** - The most important cells of the nervous system - A biological unit that underlines all behaviour - It functions is to receive, conduct and transmit signals **What is the basic anatomy of a neuron...

**WEEK 2- Biological bases of mental life and behaviour** **Neurons** **What is a neuron** - The most important cells of the nervous system - A biological unit that underlines all behaviour - It functions is to receive, conduct and transmit signals **What is the basic anatomy of a neuron** - They come in many shapes and varieties - Most neurons have - Cell body (soma) - Dendrites - Axon - Terminal buttons - Synapse- a junction between the terminal button of an axon and the membrane of another neuron **What do these components do** Soma - Contains the nucleus Dendrites - Involved in signals from other neurons Axon - Carries information from cell body to terminal buttons Terminal buttons - Secrete neurotransmitters Synapse - A junction between the terminal button of an axon and the membrane of another neuron **How does the neuron send a signal** - When neurons communicate, the neurotransmitters from one neuron are released, cross the synapse, and attach themselves to special molecules in the next neuron called receptors. Receptors receive and process the message, then send it on to the next neuron. **How do neurons communicate with each other** - Neurons use neurotransmitters to communicate with each other - A neurotransmitter is a chemical that is released by terminal button: it has an excitatory or inhibitory effect on another neuron **The purpose of neurons** 1. They generate electricity through action potentials 2. They release chemicals called neurotransmitters **Action potential** **How does the action potential work** - Neurons propagate signals in the form of action potentials that can travel great distances along an axon - Axons are built to conduct fast electrical messages in the form of action potentials **Firing a neuron** - Resting potential: the neuron is not firing - Graded potential: either 1) a neuron is rendered more likely to fire with further stimulation or 2) the neuron is inhibited, which renders it less likely to fire - Action potential: the firing of the neuron **Neurotransmitters** **What are neurotransmitters** - Chemicals that transmit information from one cell to another - They can either increase or decrease neural firing - Excitatory neurotransmitters depolarise the postsynaptic cell membrane (making an action potential more likely) - Inhibitory neurotransmitters hyperpolarise the membrane (increasing its polarisation) - Excitatory neurotransmitters "grease the wheels of neural communication" - Inhibitory neurotransmitters "put on the breaks" **Dopamine** - An excitatory neurotransmitter - Involved in voluntary movement, emotional arousal, and learning - Plays a part in the reward pathways - Plays a part in addiction - An undersupply of dopamine is implicated in Parkinson's disease and depression - An oversupply of dopamine has been implicated - In schizophrenic spectrum disorders (dopamine hypothesis i.e. more active dopamine receptors, effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs) **Dopamine release**  **GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid)** - The major inhibitory neurotransmitter - Involved in learning, memory, and sleep (Wand and Krigstein, 2009) - Research shows that GABA is particularly important in regulating anxiety - An undersupply of GABA may cause a highly reactive nervous system (Bremner, 2000) - Patients with panic attacks have 22% lower concentration of GABA (Goddard et al. 2001) - Many anti-anxiety drugs bind to GABA receptors e.g. BuSpar enhances GABA activity **The Endocrine System** - The endocrine system is a collection of glands that control various bodily functions through the secretion of hormones - The endocrine system sends global messages through the bloodstream **The nervous system** **Two basic divisions** The central nervous system (CNS) - The brain and spinal cord The peripheral nervous system (PNS) - The part of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord, including nerves attached to the brain and spinal cord **The peripheral nervous system** - the somatic nervous system - the autonomic nervous system (sympathetic + parasympathetic)  **The central nervous system** A diagram of a human nervous system Description automatically generated **How does the central nervous system work** - The brain controls how we think, learn, move, and feel. The spinal cord carries messages back and forth between the brain and the nerves that run throughout the body. **Reflexes** **The Brain**  A yellow sign with black text Description automatically generated  A yellow sign with black text Description automatically generated ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------   **The Brain** A diagram of the brain Description automatically generated **WEEK 3- Research methods: foundations and applications** **Types of research methods** **Quantitative vs qualitative** +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Quantitative | Qualitative | Mixed methods | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | - Experimental | - Ethnography | | | | | | | - Descriptive case | - Phenomenology | | | study | | | | | - Action research | | | - Naturalistic | | | | observation | - Grounded theory | | | | | | | - Survey | - Discourse | | | | analysis | | | - Correlation | | | | | - Content analysis | | | - Brain imaging | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **The scientific method** Step 1: question/observation - Identify a question of interest - From observation, news, reading, research etc Step 2: hypothesis - Develop a testable hypothesis - Test a theory - Operationally defined variables Step 3: research design - Choose an appropriate design for your study Step 4: test - Data collection Step 5: analyse - Statistical analyses - Significant findings- hypothesis supported Step 6: publish/develop - Publish findings in peer reviewed scientific journal - Develop/revise theory **Variables in psychology** **Defining and measuring variables** Variable - Any factor, event, situation, behaviour, or characteristic that can vary Operational definition - The set of procedures used to measure or define it e.g. aggression, pain **Types of variables** Independent variable (IV) - The variable that is varied or manipulated by the researcher Dependent variable (DV) - The response being measured Cofounding variable - An uncontrolled variable that is confused or confounded with the effects of the independent variable **Reliability and validity** **Reliability** - Refers to the consistency and stability of a measure or research method over time. A reliable measure produces the same results under consistent condition - Test-retest ability - Inter-rater reliability - Internal consistency **Validity** - Refers to the degree to which tests accurately measure the construct it aims to assess, or a study effectively addresses the hypothesis it intends to evaluate - Construct validity - External validity - Internal validity **Internal validity** - Refers to the accuracy about cause-and-effect relationship between variables Threats to internal validity - Confounding variables - Placebo effects - Experimenter expectancy effects - Demand characteristics **Ethics in psychological research** **Questionable ethics** - Conditioned fear - Watson and Raynor's (1920) little albert experiment - Power and authority - Stanford Prison Experiment (Zimbardo, 1971) **Ethical considerations in human research** - Informed consent - Confidentiality and privacy - Minimizing harm - Right to withdraw - Deception and debriefing **Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples** - Six core values 1. Reciprocity 2. Respect 3. Equality 4. Responsibility 5. Survival and protection 6. Spirit and integrity **Cultural considerations in psychological research** **Cross-cultural differences** - Cultural sensitivity - E.g. "how often do you express your opinions openly during family gatherings?" - Language differences - Cultural relevance **Cultural safety** - Respect - Collaboration - Ethics - Reflection/avoid sterotypes **WEEK 4- Genes and environment** **Introduction to genetics** **DNA, genes and chromosomes** - Human body contains approximately 100 trillion cells - Each cell (except red blood cells) contains a nucleus - DNA is the molecule that forms genes and multiple genes are grouped into chromosomes. Chromosomes are present in the nucleus of every cell and contains all the genetic information of an organism - Human cells have approximately 25,000 genes - DNA (deoxyribose nucleic acid) carries the genetic information of a living being, A section of DNA is known as a gene. Genes contain the code to produce a particular protein within a cell **What is DNA made of** - Nucleotides are the basic units of DNA, composed of a phosphate group (P), a sugar (deoxyribose) and a nitrogenous base (A,C,G or T) that encodes a genetic information **Basic functions of DNA** Information storage Replication ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- DNA stores the genetic information that determines the characteristics and functions of an organism DNA can make exact copies of itself, which is essential for cell division and growth Transcription and translation Inheritance DNA is transcribed into proteins, which control cellular activities DNA is inherited from generation to generation and is responsible for passing traits from parents to offspring **How is all coming together** - Genome: complete genetic material of an organism - Has only 4 letters - Purine bases: adenine A and Guanine G - Pyrimidine bases: Thymine T and Cytosine C - Alleles: Different forms of the genes - Dominant: Only ONE allele is needed for the trait to be expressed - Recessive: TWO alleles are needed for the trait to be expressed - Genotype: specific genetic makeup of an individual - Phenotype: the individual observable characteristics **History of DNA** **Nature vs nurture** Nativism: extreme nature position Empiricism (Behaviourism): extreme nurture position Gene x Environment: interaction between both **Nature vs Nurture** - Very old debate- 300 BC Greek philosophers (e.g. Plato + Socrates) - Nature: all the genes are hereditary factors that influence who we are- from our physical appearance to our personality characteristics - Nurture: all the environmental variables that impact who we are, including our early childhood experiences, how we were raised our social relationship, and our surrounding culture **Nativism** - Human characterises are a product of evolution. Individual differences are due to variation in genetic code - Proponents - Noam Chomsky- language acquisition is innate - Francis Galton- intelligence (coined the phrase "Nature vs Nurture") - John Bowlby- attachment theory; children come into the world biologically pre-programmed to form attachments with others - Personality traits/temperament models **Empiricism** - At birth, the human mind is a tabula rasa (a blank slate) and that this is gradually "filled" because of experience - Psychological characteristics and behavioral differences that emerge through infancy and childhood are the results of learning. - Proponents - John Watson - behavior is shaped almost entirely by the environment. Watson famously claimed that he could train any infant to become any type of specialist, regardless of their genetics. - B.F Skinner - imitation theory proposes that language develops because of children trying to imitate their caregivers or those around them - Albert Bandura - social learning through modelling (Bobo doll) **Gene- environment interactions** **Gene x environment** - Mutagens: these are pollutants in the environment that enter the body and directly change your DNA sequence. - Gene-Gene interactions: When pollutants in the environment do not change your DNA sequence, but rather cause a chain reaction that affects the functioning of one gene that then affects the functioning of another gene - Transcription factors: Pollutants in the environment can directly affect the DNA sequence by altering transcription factors, which are responsible for starting the process of using genes to make proteins that are needed for different functions in the body. - Epigenetics: The environment can alter your health by affecting the proteins that turn genes on or off. **Evidence- how do we know who is right** - Family, twin and adoption studies - Linage studies - Genome- wide Association Studies (GWAS) **How much genetic variance do we share with our family** First Degree relatives ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Siblings, non-identical twin, parents and children- 50% Second degree relatives Half-siblings, uncles, aunts, nephews, nieces and grandparents- 25% Third degree relatives First cousins, half-uncles, half-aunts, half-nephews and half-nieces- 12.5% Twins Monozygotic Dizygotic Twin Studies One egg, one sperm, splits into two. Share 100% genes Two eggs, two sperm. Share 50% genes Allow us to understand the importance of environmental and genetic influences for traits, phenotypes, and disorders **Linkage studies** A diagram of a diagram Description automatically generated **Family twin and adoption studies** - Family studies: researchers study relatives to determine if genetic similarity is related to similarity in a particular trait - Twin studies: researchers compare trait similarities in identical and fraternal twins - Adoption studies: researchers study relatives to determine if genetic similarity is related to similarity in a particular trait **Behavioural genetics** - If something is genetic then - See more similarity between MZ twins than DZ twins - See no difference between MZ twins raised together and MZ twins raised apart - Adopted children would have more similarities with their biological parents than their adopted parents - If something is environmental, then - MZ twins are like DZ twins - MZ twins raised together to have higher relationships than those MZ twins raised apart - Adopted children would have more similarities with their adopted parents than their biological parents **Polygenic inheritance** - Behavioural genetics has suggested that often no one gene is linked to psychological traits- it is often thousands collectively contributing - E.g. depression is thought to be influenced by around 1000 genes (Plomin, 2018) - Thus, there isn't a simple genetic determinism for most psychiatric conditions **Evidence in psychology** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Personality | - Personality traits such as | | | introversion/extroversion, | | | conscientiousness, and | | | openness to experience have | | | been shown to have a genetic | | | basis, with heritability | | | estimates typically ranging | | | from 40% to 60%. | | | | | | - Environmental influences, | | | such as parenting styles, | | | cultural background, and life | | | experiences, also shape | | | personality development. | | | | | | - G x E: e.g. individual with a | | | genetic tendency toward | | | anxiety may only exhibit this | | | trait in response to | | | stressful life events. | | | | | | - (Benjamin & Warren, 2010; | | | Zhang et al., 2022) | +===================================+===================================+ | Intelligence | - Twin and adoption studies | | | have shown that genetics play | | | a significant role in | | | intelligence, with | | | heritability estimates | | | ranging from 50% to 80%. | | | | | | - However, the environment also | | | has a strong impact. | | | Educational opportunities, | | | parental involvement, and | | | socioeconomic status can | | | greatly influence the | | | development and expression of | | | intellectual abilities. | | | | | | - G x E: certain environmental | | | conditions can either enhance | | | or suppress the expression of | | | genetic potential | | | | | | - (Plomin et al., 2016; 2018; | | | Tucker-Drob & Briley, 2014) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Aggression | - Heritability estimates | | | typically ranging from 30% to | | | 50%, based on twin and family | | | studies. Specific genes, such | | | as the MAOA gene (often | | | referred to as the \"warrior | | | gene\"), have been associated | | | with aggressive behaviour, | | | particularly in males. | | | | | | - However, the environment also | | | has a strong impact. Early | | | childhood experiences, Social | | | and cultural contexts also | | | influence aggression. | | | | | | - G x E e.g. genetic | | | predisposition towards | | | aggression might only exhibit | | | aggressive behaviour when | | | exposed to adverse | | | environments, positive | | | environments can mitigate the | | | expression of these genetic | | | tendencies. | | | | | | - (Ficks & Waldman, 2014; Reif | | | et al., 2007) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Wellbeing | - Twin studies have | | | demonstrated that traits | | | associated with wellbeing, | | | such as optimism and | | | emotional stability, have a | | | genetic component. Specific | | | genes related to the | | | regulation of | | | neurotransmitters have been | | | linked to individual | | | differences in wellbeing. | | | | | | - Positive environmental | | | factors, such as strong | | | social support networks, | | | stable employment, and access | | | to healthcare, can enhance | | | wellbeing, while adverse | | | conditions like chronic | | | stress or social isolation | | | can diminish it. | | | | | | - G x E e.g. genetic | | | predisposition for high | | | wellbeing may still | | | experience low wellbeing if | | | exposed to severe life | | | stressors and vice versa | | | | | | - (Bartels, 2015; Jamshidi et | | | al., 2020) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Depression | - Heritability estimates | | | ranging from 30% to 40%. Twin | | | studies have shown that the | | | risk of developing depression | | | is higher among individuals | | | who have first-degree | | | relatives with the disorder. | | | Specific genetic variants, | | | such as those related to the | | | serotonin transporter gene | | | (5-HTTLPR) | | | | | | - Stressful life events, such | | | as trauma, loss, and chronic | | | stress, are well-established | | | triggers. | | | | | | - G x E e.g. genetic | | | predisposition may be more | | | vulnerable to environmental | | | stressors, which can trigger | | | or exacerbate depressive | | | episodes. Most severe forms | | | of depression often result | | | from a complex interplay | | | between genetic | | | predispositions and negative | | | environmental experiences | | | | | | - (Coleman et al., 2020; Singh | | | et al., 2024) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Anxiety | - Heritability estimates | | | ranging from 30% to 40%. | | | Specific genes involved in | | | neurotransmitter regulation, | | | such as those affecting | | | serotonin and dopamine | | | pathways, have been linked to | | | an increased risk of anxiety | | | disorders | | | | | | - Early life stress, trauma, | | | chronic stress, and adverse | | | life events are major | | | environmental contributors. | | | | | | - G x E e.g. genetic | | | predisposition for anxiety is | | | more likely to develop | | | symptoms in response to | | | stressful life events | | | | | | - (Sharma et al., 2016; | | | Shimada-Sugimoto et al, 2015) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Schizophrenia | - A strong genetic component, | | | contributing to about 80% of | | | the risk of developing the | | | condition. Genetic factors | | | involve numerous genes, with | | | recent research identifying | | | hundreds of genetic variants | | | associated with schizophrenia | | | through genome-wide | | | association studies (GWAS). | | | | | | - Key environmental | | | contributors include prenatal | | | exposures (such as infections | | | during pregnancy), early | | | childhood trauma, urban | | | upbringing, and substance | | | abuse. | | | | | | - G x E e.g. genetic | | | predisposition might develop | | | schizophrenia only when | | | exposed to specific | | | environmental stressors, such | | | as significant life stress, | | | or in combination with other | | | risk factors like cannabis | | | use during adolescence | | | | | | - (Simgh et al., 2022; | | | Trubetskoy et al., 2022) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Neurodivergence | - Autism has a high | | | heritability estimate of 70% | | | to 90%, indicating a strong | | | genetic influence. Similarly, | | | ADHD also shows substantial | | | genetic involvement, with | | | heritability estimates around | | | 70%. Researchers have | | | identified numerous genes | | | associated with these | | | conditions, though the | | | genetic architecture is | | | complex, involving many genes | | | with small effects rather | | | than single-gene causes. | | | | | | - Prenatal exposures (such as | | | maternal stress, infections, | | | or exposure to toxins), | | | perinatal complications, and | | | early childhood environments. | | | | | | - G x E e.g. environmental | | | factors might trigger or | | | exacerbate neurodivergent | | | traits in individuals with a | | | genetic predisposition | | | | | | - (Koi, 2021; Rolland et | | | al., 2023) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **WEEK 5- Sensation and perception** **Sensation and perception** **Sensation** - The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous systems receive and represent stimuli energies from our environment. Sensation is the initial detection of environmental stimuli such as light, sound and heat **Perception** - The process by which the brain organises and interprets sensory information, transforming it into meaningful objects and events. Perception involves making sense of what our senses detect, allowing us to recognise objects, people and situations **The sensory systems** **Transduction** - The process of converting psychical energy (like light or sound) into electrochemical signals that the brain can interpret **Key systems** - Vison: conversion of light waves into neutral signal by the retina - Audition: conversion of sound waves into neural signals by the cochlea - Somatosensation: detection of pressure, temperature, and pain through skin receptors - Proprioception: sensing the position and movement of the body through the vestibular and kinesthetics systems - Gustation (taste) and Olfaction (smell): detection of chemical molecules in food and the air **Vision- Understanding how we see** **Photoreceptors** - Rods and cones: specialised cells in the retina that detect light and colour - Rods: more sensitive to light, useful for night vision - Cones: detect colour and detail, concentrated in the fovea **Post-rectoral mechanisms** - Processing of visual information beyond photoreceptors, including lateral antagonism (contrast enhancement) and the blind spot (an area with no photoreceptors) **Retina-Thalamic-Cortical Pathway** - The pathway visual information taken from the retina, through the thalamus, to the visual information is processed **What vs where pathways** - What pathway (ventral stream): involved in identifying objects - Where pathway (dorsal stream): involved in locating objects in space **Audition** **Cochlea** - A spiral- shaped, fluid-filled structure in the inner ear that translated sound waves into neural signals **Frequency and amplitude** - Frequency: perceived as pitch - Amplitude: perceived as loudness **Neural pathways** - Sound signals travel from the cochlea through the auditory nerve to the brainstem, and finally to the primary auditory cortex **Primary auditory cortex** - Located in the temporal lobe, this area processes basic aspects of sound, such as pitch and volume **Localisation** - The brains' ability to determine the location of a sound source based on timing and intensity differences between the ears **Somatosensation** **Skin receptors** - Mechanoreceptors: detect pressure and texture - Nociceptors: detect pain - Thermoreceptors: the ability to sense heat and cold - Spinal cord: the pathway through which somatosensory information travels to the brain - Somatosensory cortex: located in the parietal lobe, this region processes sensory input from the skin and other body parts **Proprioception** **Skin receptors** - Mechanoreceptors: detect pressure and texture - Nociceptors: detect pain - Thermoreceptors: the ability to sense heat and cold - Spinal cord: the pathway through which somatosensory information travels to the brain - Somatosensory cortex: located in the parietal lobe, this region processes sensory input from the skin and other body parts **Gustation and Olfaction** **Gustation(taste)** - Detects five basic tastes- sweet, sour, slaty, bitter, and umami. Taste buds on the tongue send signals to the brain about the chemical composition of food **Olfaction (smell)** - Detects airborne chemicals through receptors in the nasal cavity. Smell is closely linked to taste and plays a significant role in flavour perception **Absolute vs Relative thresholds** - Absolute threshold: the minimum intensity of a stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time - Relative threshold (difference in stimulus intensity that can be detected - Example: the ability to detect the difference between two slightly different shades of colour) **Gestalt Grouping principles** - Gestalt psychology: a theory that the mind perceives objects as part of a greater whole and as elements of more complex systems **Key principles** - Proximity: objects that are close to each other are perceived as a group - Similarity: objects that are similar in appearance are perceived as belonging together - Continuity: the mind prefers continuous forms rather than disconnected segments - Closure: the mind completes incomplete figures to form a familiar object - Figure-ground: the ability to distinguish an object (the figure) from its background (the ground) **WEEK 6- Learning** **What is learning** - "Learning is a change in behaviour due to experience" - Learning involves change, what changes is behaviour, due to experience **Classical conditioning**  **Mechanisms of classical conditioning** - Acquisition - Extinction - Spontaneous recovery - Generalisation and discrimination **Examples** - Pet behaviour - Unconditioned stimulus (US): Going for a walk - Unconditioned response (UR): Excited - Conditioned stimulus (CS): Sound of lead - Conditioned response (CR): Excited - Advertising - Unconditioned stimulus (US): Site of food - Unconditioned response (UR): Feeling hungry - Conditioned stimulus (CS): McDonald's golden arches - Conditioned response (CR): Feeling hungry **Classical Conditioning of fear** Little Albert experiment - Tested infants' reaction to various stimuli and found no evidence of innate fear - Infants react to a sudden loud noise with crying/startle response - 9-month-old little albert exposed to a white rat and a loud noise repeatedly - Little albert developed a fear of the white rat - Fear of generalised to other similar objects **Operant conditioning** - The probably of a behaviour is modified by its consequences - An operant is any behaviour which is produced, and which can be characterised by its observable effects of the environment - Differs from classical conditioning in that it involves voluntary behaviours, and the delivery of the outcome is dependent on making the voluntary behaviour (response) - Thorndike's law of effect **Reinforcement** - Positive reinforcement: the addition of a pleasant event is consequent on the production of a specific response - Negative reinforcement: the withdrawal of an aversive event is consequent on the production of a specific response **Punishment** - Positive punishment: the addition of an aversive event is consequent on the production of a specific response - Negative punishment: the withdrawal of a pleasant event is consequent on the production of a specific response **Increasing/decreasing behaviour** Increases Decreases ---------- ------------------------ --------------------- Add Positive reinforcement Positive punishment Subtract Negative reinforcement Negative punishment **Problems with punishment** - Does work if it isn't clear what is being punished - Classical conditioning of negative emotional response to punisher - Punishment may not eliminate other reinforcing outcomes - Only effective if delivered immediately after the behaviour - Potential for abuse - Can lead to aggression - Longitudinal study: child temperament and parenting (2years and 4 years) - Social development sessions at both age points - Sessions coded for how parent-child interaction (e.g. comforting, encouraging) and child behaviour (e.g. mood, activity level, reactivity, adjustment) **Observational learning** **Social observational learning** - Observing the behaviour of another individual and the consequences of the model's behaviour - Vicarious reinforcement: the consequences of the model's behaviour strengthen the observer's tendency to behave in a similar way - Vicarious punishment: the consequences of the model's behaviour weaken the observer's tendency to behave in a similar way **Asocial observational learning** - An observer views an event and its positive and/or negative consequences - Model condition: model demonstrated how to pull on the mat that did not have the toy - "Ghost" condition: mats and toy moved on its own due to hidden pulleys - Performance in "Ghost" condition significantly higher **Observational learning of fear** - Rhesus monkeys fear of snakes assessed - Tested with - Real snake - Toy snake - Model snake - Black cord - Yellow cord - Neutral object - Wild-reared monkeys= learned fear - Laboratory-reared monkey = no fear - Laboratory-reared monkeys can learn to be afraid of snakes through observing the fear of another monkey - Compared fears acquired through 1. Conditioning 2. Observation learning 3. Verbal instruction **Treating anxiety and fear** Theoretical mechanisms of exposure - Habituation: reduction in responding with repeated exposure - Extinction: inhibiting previously learned fear associations - Emotional processing: developing new interpretations and meaning for fear stimuli and fearful responses - Self-efficacy: increased perception that one is capable of tolerating fear stimuli and responses **WEEK 7- Attention and memory** **Attention** - Sternberg (1996)- "attention acts as a means of focusing limited mental recourses on the information and cognitive processes that are most salient at a given moment" - Attention associated with - Arousal level - Vigilance - The ability to stay alert and concentrate **Types of attention** - Attention can be broken down into many different types - Focused attention - Divided attention - Vigilance - Top down (endogenous) - Bottom up (exogenous) - Covert attention - Overt attention - Modality specific **Research on attention** Broadbent's split-span studies - Broadbent aimed to understand how people selectively focus their attention by deliberately overwhelming them with stimuli - To accomplish this, he presented one message to a person's right ear and a different message to their left ear at the same time - This method is known as a split-span experiment, or the dichotic listening task - Broadbent was interested in how these messages would be recalled - He discovered that people made fewer errors when repeating messages ear by ear (and typically preferred to do so in this manner) - Broadbent theorised that humans can only process a limited amount of sensory information at any given time due to an attentional bottleneck **Multi-tasking: the facts** - Increases the production of cortisol and adrenaline (which can overstimulate your brain and cause mental fog or scrambled thinking) - Trying to acquire information while multi-tasking causes it to go to the wrong part of the brain (the striatum \[specialised for storing new skills\], rather than the hippocampus) and impulse control suffers - Multi-tasking involves switching from one task to another very rapidly, every time you do this there's cognitive cost incurred- and these can be significant- can be even worse than being under the influence of a drug (Levitin, 2015) **Divided attention** - Doing two (or more) tasks at once - How good are we at doing two tasks? - This could depend on how we allocate attention when doing more than one task at once - Two theories that speak on this 1. Central capacity theory 2. Multiple recourses model **Central capacity theory** - Suggests we have a single pool of limited capacity from which we allocate attentional resources - The available capacity is a function of arousal - Performance depends on how much capacity is allocated to a task - Capacity is allocated according to strategy that depends on the motivational influences and characteristics of an individual - How a person allocates attention cannot always be predicted, it depends on the motivational influences and characteristics of an individual - How a person allocates attention cannot always be predicted, it depends on the individual and their circumstances **Multiple resources model** - Suggests we have separate modules/processors that can be engaged independently or jointly- each processor has its own capacity - Each capacity may be shared by several processes - Changes in task difficulty may lead to qualitative changes in use of resources (i.e. use more/different modules to do task) **Distraction** - How can psychologists contribute to the question "what is 'driving distracted' and is it bad enough to make laws about it"? - What is driving distracted? - A diversion of attention away from activities critical for safe driving towards a competing activity - Types of distraction - Visual (looking at something other than looking at the road) - Cognitive (thinking about something other than driving) - Physical (doing something unrelated to driving) - All of which could have separate effects on driving performance **The multiple resources model** - According to the Multiple resources model - because the response modality overlaps with driving when holding a mobile phone this should be most disruptive - because driving and talking on a hands-free phone have less overlap in response modality this should be less disruptive. - Is this the case? - Experimental research findings are at odds with this, suggesting that a mobile phone conversation over speaker is also disruptive to driving, and that the modality (hands-free or holding the phone) doesn't matter as much as we might think! (Strayer et al., 2003). **Memory** **What is memory** - A biological function, enabling us to learn from experience - Allows people to retain knowledge, reflect on the past, and anticipate the future - Autobiographical memory is a crucial component of a person's personality and identity - Shared memory also binds groups, organisations, institutions and societies together -- even entire cultures **How memory works** - The three stages of memory are - Encoding (getting information in) - Retention/storage (making sure information stays in memory) - Retrieval (getting information out) - Memory is influenced by our attention (and other constructs such as identity, perception, emotion, language, and social processes) **Encoding** - Refers to how information gets from conscious awareness into storage - Elaboration and level of processing (Craik & Lockhart,1972) - Deeper processing (e.g., semantic) leads to better memory compared to less deep (e.g.,'rote' or \'rhyme') - Distributed Practice (e.g., Ebbinghaus, 1885/1964) - Spreading learning over time is better than cramming **Storage** - Involves retaining information over time - Once in the system, information must be organised and stored - Like how a computer saves data using different locations either temporarily in random access memory (RAM) or more permanently on the hard drive **Retrieval** - Processes that access stored information - Stored memories are recovered in response to memory cues that are either external or internally generated - It is a context-sensitive and interactive process **A three-stage model** **Short-term memory/ working memory** - A limited-capacity system that temporarily stores and processes information - A mental 'workspace' that stores information, actively manipulates it, supports other complex cognitive functions such as problem-solving and planning, and interacts with long-term memory **Long-term memory** - The continuous storage of information - Types of long-term memory 1. explicit and 2. implicit memory - Explicit memory refers to the conscious recall of facts and events (e.g., remembering a birthday) - Implicit memory is used for unconscious recall, like skills and habits (e.g., riding a bike) **Types of memory**  **Memory: common misconceptions** - Simons & Chabris (2011) studied American adults and discovered the following misconceptions about memory: - 63% strongly or mostly agreed that memory \'works like a video camera\' - 47.6% strongly or mostly agreed that \'memory does not change\' - 54.6% strongly or mostly agreed that \'hypnosis is useful in helping witnesses accurately recall details of crimes\' - 82.7% strongly or mostly agreed that those with amnesia \'typically cannot recall their own name or identity\' - Experts overwhelmingly disagreed with these statements **Memory** - Memory is reconstructive - We often forget parts of a story, so we fill in gaps with what makes sense to us; Importance of schemas - mental framework for events - We recall things differently in different contexts depending on what information is most relevant - We can update our memories with new information **The misinformation effect** - Participants see slides of a car accident Critical detail (stop sign) in one slide Then exposed to misleading info: - Congruent: "Did another car pass the red Datsun while it was stopped at the stop sign?" - Incongruent: "Did another car pass the red Datsun while it was stopped at the yield sign?" Asked to complete: - A forced choice final recognition test **Why does our memory do this?** - Gist-based memory errors: retain the themes and meanings of events rather than all the minute details - Allows us to store what is most important without overloading our system - Allows us to abstract and generalise knowledge: what usually happens -- - Spreading activation, allows us to bring in information that might be relevant - Source monitoring errors: we get confused between things we experienced, things we heard, things we imagined - Allows us to flexibly recombine scenarios and imagine new events, with adaptive planning functions - Allows us to update our understanding of the past based on new information - Schacter et al., (2011). Memory distortion: an adaptive perspective **The relationship between attention and memory** **Attention and memory** - There is broad agreement that working memory is closely related to attention - Level of processing: deep and shallow processing (Craik and Lockhart, 1972, Lockhart and Craig, 1990) - Remembering and forgetting; absentmindedness- the failure to remember something, when attention is elsewhere (Schacter, 1999) **The development of attention systems in infancy** - At birth, newborn visual fixation is believed to be primarily involuntary, exogenously driven, and exclusively under the control of a reflective system - This reflective system includes the superior colliculus, the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus, and the primary visual cortex - Many newborns' fixations are reflectively driven by direct pathways from the retina to the superior colliculus - Infant looking is attracted by basic but salient stimulus features processed via the magnocellular pathway that can generally be discriminated in the peripheral visual field, such as high contrast borders, motion and size **The development of working memory in infancy** - The improvements in working memory performance, which occur after 5-6 months of age, are likely influenced by further development of the attention systems - Successful performance on working memory task involves more than just voluntary control of eye movements. Working memory tasks also involve attentional control and inhibition - Developmental gains in sustained attention also facilitate improved performance on working memory tasks - The development of attention and the development of working memory are closely related **Attention and memory** - Attention and memory are connected - While often studied as distinct topics- they influence each other - Understandings of attention benefit our understanding of memory **WEEK 9- Language and thinking** **Introduction to language** **What is language** - The principal method of human communication, consisting of words used in a structured and conventional way and [conveyed](https://www.google.com/search?sca_esv=339a018dea4bc811&sxsrf=ADLYWIKZa6yF69-PfbeaLdzhzmsLgkXZEg:1729227882931&q=conveyed&si=ACC90nwZKElgOcNXBU934ENhMNgqVZ2JQjMaWZTmrCtPaFbTucl6rd3OnWE0DrRG3CrAuiMndrTD_39ZoShZZNh63EJSOIPI2Jf-vhuGeewfldYVW05WqrA%3D&expnd=1&sa=X&sqi=2&ved=2ahUKEwjnl8rtk5eJAxXB4zgGHb8WFTkQyecJegQIIxAO) by speech, writing, or [gesture](https://www.google.com/search?sca_esv=339a018dea4bc811&sxsrf=ADLYWIKZa6yF69-PfbeaLdzhzmsLgkXZEg:1729227882931&q=gesture&si=ACC90nypsxZVz3WGK63NbnSPlfCBgaT53pweyfGqen8tS0IXOxc3rlwwZ2w1GCbtx4lopDK38sdcbQ3Pxk3v7ZtjDR0T_oCT5g%3D%3D&expnd=1&sa=X&sqi=2&ved=2ahUKEwjnl8rtk5eJAxXB4zgGHb8WFTkQyecJegQIIxAP) **Elements of language** A diagram of a child hit the ball Description automatically generated - Syntax - Semantics - Pragmatics - Discourse - Top-down vs bottom-up processing - Top down: sensory information is interpreted in the light of existing context, existing context, expectations and prior knowledge to understand language - Bottom-up: individual elements like sounds or letters are combined to form a unified perception **Nature vs nurture** - Nature - Chomsky - Universal grammar - Language acquisition device (LAD) - Critical period hypothesis - Nurture - Skinner, Vygotsky - Imitation, reinforcement - Learning through interaction - Social interactionist theory **Language development in infancy** Age in months Stage --------------- -------------------------- 1-5 Reflective communication 6-18 Babbling 10-13 First words 12-18 One-word sentences 18-24 Vocabulary spurt **Language development in childhood** Age in months Stage --------------- ------------------------------------------------------- 2 Two-word sentences 2.5 Three-word sentences 3-3.5 Complete simple active structure, four-word sentences 4 Five-word sentences 5 Well-developed and complex syntax 6 Displays metalinguistic awareness **Introduction to thinking and cognitive processes** **What is thinking** - The ability to process information, hold attention, store and retrieve memories and select appropriate responses and actions **Units of thought** - Concepts - Categorisation - Propositions - Mental images - Mental models - Schemas - Theory of mind **Reasoning, problem solving and decision making**  A comparison of a test results Description automatically generated - Problem solving - Algorithms - Mental simulations - Barriers to problem solving - Functional fixedness - Mental set - Confirmation bias  **Heuristics** - Availability heuristic - Representative heuristic - Anchoring heuristic **The interplay between language and thinking** **Language and thought** - core theories - the Whorfian hypothesis - A person\'s native language restricts their ability to think about certain concepts - Chomsky's universal grammar - Innate language capacity - Shared grammatical structures - Language acquisition device - Critical period hypothesis **Explicit vs implicit cognition** - Explicit - Is gained though propositional attitudes or beliefs of certain thoughts - Implicit - Is obtained through social aspects and association **Language, thought and culture** - Cultural differences in language - Representations in time - Mandarin vs English - Pormpuraaw people (Boroditsky and Gaby, 2010) **WEEK 10- Emotion and motivation** **What is motivation** - Motivation = the "why" of behaviour - "Motivation refers to the "why" of behaviour, not the "how." Why do we engage in certain behaviours and have certain feelings and thoughts but not others?" (Deckers, 2010, p.xvii) - Motivation refers to the driving force behind behaviour that leads us to pursue some things and avoid others (Burton, Westen & Kowalski, 2023)" - Motivation is the concept we use to describe - Forces acting on or within an organism to initiate and direct behaviour - Differences in the intensity of behaviour - Persistence of behaviour **'Different perspectives' in motivation** Psychodynamic Conscious vs unconscious motivations --------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Behaviourist Role of rewards and punishments Cognitive Role of beliefs and expectations about outcomes and abilities Humanistic Motivations to reach our potential Evolutionary Biological adaptations to maximise survival and reproductive success - Each provides important contributions to understanding motivation, but... - Messy... overlapping descriptions and approaches to understanding a single concept - Why this approach from 'different perspectives? **Psychology- a young and disintegrated science** - Psychology is a young science - 1879- opening of Wilhelm Wundt's laboratory, University of Leipzig - Multiple 'schools of thought' - Historical schools in psychology - Ongoing legacy in present psychological 'fields' - Overlap in subject matter across the fields - 'Different perspectives' approach - Can there be a more integrated approach? - Motivation of central relevance to most areas in psychology - Ideal opportunity for an integrated approach - To complement the different perspectives approach, let's explore one way to bring these perspectives together **What do we study in psychology** - Psychology is - Traditional definition: the science of 'mind' and 'behaviour' or 'mental process' and 'behaviour' - Disjointed - Leaves out important aspects - 'mind' not adequately defined - Martins' definition: the study of the functional interaction between nervous systems and their environments **Nervous systems and environments** **Mechanisms of motivation** - Much discussion in motivation theory focusses on systems that coordinate behavioural patterns (drives, emotions, etc) - Two important distractions used to categorise motivational systems - Respond mostly to internal bodily stimuli vs external stimuli/memories/beliefs - Hedonistic vs homeostatic goal **Internal vs external motivators** - External motivators - Behaviour triggered by something in the external environment - Internal motivators - Behaviour triggered by an internal 'need' or 'drive' (often connected to a bodily state) - Typical pattern in both is that - An environment is judges as non-optimal - Responses triggered to attempt to optimise environment - (Not uncontroversial, but commonly used distinction) **Hedonism vs homeostasis** - Hedonism - Stimulus is - Good want more - Bad want less - Typically (but not always) have a set affective valence (pleasurable or unpleasurable feeling/sensation) - Homeostasis - Maintenance of a state of equilibrium - Affective valence of stimulus context dependant  **Types of motivational system** - Primarily internal or external triggers? - Have primarily hedonistic or homeostatic aims? **Introduction to emotions** **Defining emotions** - What is emotion? Yet to be adequately defined - Folk psychology (everyday use of the term) - Emotion as 'feelings' (conscious 'feeling states') - Emotions in functional context - "An emotion is an inferred complex sequence of reactions to a stimulus and includes cognitive evaluations, subjective changes, autonomic and neural arousal, impulses to action, and behaviour designed to have an effect upon the stimulus that initiated the complex sequence." (Plutchik, 1984) **Basic vs self-conscious emotions** - How many emotions are there? - Many different words used to describe emotional states - Some similar, some different across cultures - Primary/basic emotions (Ekman and colleagues) - Secondary/social/self-conscious emotions - Pride, shame, guilt, embarrassment **Self-knowledge of emotions and emotional regulation** **'Head or the heart'** - Do emotions always control our behaviour? No - Additional components of emotion - Subjective experience - Self-knowledge **Relevance to clinical work** - Significant proportion of the work of practicing psychologists in assisting people to: - Better regulate and manage automatic emotional reactions, by... - Building their self-knowledge of their emotions, and then... - Developing skills to regulate (calm and de-escalate those emotions and maintain behaviours that will decrease emotional intensity over time) **WEEK 11- Psychopathology- diagnosis** **Mental illness prevalence and impact** **Mental illness is extremely common** - Over their lifetime - Australian bureau of statistics (2020-2022) - 42.9% people aged 16-85 has a mental disorder at some time - This lasted for 12+ months for - 21.5% people 16-85 - 38.8% people aged 16-24 - Breakdown by type - 28.8% have had an anxiety-related disorder - 19% have had a substance use disorder - 16% have had an affective disorder - In the last 12 months - Australian institute of health and welfare (2024) - 1 in 5 (22%) people aged 16-85 had a mental disorder - 17% had an anxiety disorder - 8% had an affective disorder - 3% had a substance use disorder **Impacts** - Functional impacts (HILDA survey, 2021) - People with chronic mental illness - 17% need help or supervision in daily life - 59% = workplace difficulties - 58% of students= difficulties with education - Suicide (Australian institute of health and welfare, 2024) - 3249 in 2022 - Three times more than road fatalities - Leading cause of death in 15-44 age group - Economic impacts (Productivity Commission estimates, 2020) - Mental illness and suicide cost the Australian economy \$70bn/yr **Groups of concern (AIHW): overall prevalence** - Young people - Mental illness highest in 16-25 age groups, decreasing over time - Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander (2018-2019) - Mental illness prevalence of 24% (vs 22%) but... - Higher suicide rates: 4.6% of deaths in 2022 (vs 1.6%) - LGBTQ+ reports of previous/current diagnoses (2019) - 61% reported depression - 47% reported anxiety - Disability (2020-2021) - 33% adults with disability = high psychological distress in last week (vs 12%) - Gender - Females - Higher rates of mental illness overall - 2 x more hospitalisation for self-harm - Higher rates of suicide attempts - Males - Significantly higher death by suicide - M=7 per day - F=3 per day **Is mental illness getting worse** A screenshot of a graph Description automatically generated **What causes mental illness** - Complex question you'll revisit throughout psychology study - Two key concepts... - Nature vs nurture - Nature = Predisposed/genetic propensity - Nurture = Impact of negative life experiences - (trauma, abuse/neglect, non-optimal parenting/family environment, etc.) - Diathesis-stress model - Diathesis = underlying vulnerability - Stress = current/recent events activating the underlying vulnerabilities - Diathesis + stress = illness - Applies to physical and mental health **Diatheses** - Genetic pre-disposition - Seen in many disorders (schizophrenia, bipolar, depression, anxiety, autism spectrum disorder, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder...) - Epigenetic pre-disposition - Susceptibility to anxiety/stress, anger, etc. - Negative experiences - In childhood: Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) - Childhood physical, sexual and emotional abuse Physical neglect and emotional neglect - Exposure to family violence - Parental substance use - Parental mental illness - Parental separation or divorce; and - Parental incarceration - In adulthood: Past trauma, other negative events **Stress** - Anything that overwhelms our ability to cope - Acute environmental stressors - Could include - Loss (loved one, job, mobility/ability, etc.) - Recent traumatic event (disaster, war, accident, etc.) - Anything else causing high stress - Overwhelm us quickly - Chronic environmental stressors - Could include - Ongoing relational conflict - Financial stress - Chronic pain or illness - Workplace bullying - Overwhelm us slowly **Diathesis-stress + nature/nurture**  **Causes of recent increase** - We don't know. Many possibilities... - Genetic/epigenetic? - Unlikely, due to quickly rising rates - Early childhood environments - Over-protective parenting of Gen Z's? - Smart phones/social media re-wiring brains? - Acute and chronic environmental stressors - Global stressors (war, climate change)? - Increasing political polarisation (left vs right)? - Severe economic inequality? - Phones Fingertip access to ALL the bad news? - Mental health causation is complex. Keep an open mind and follow the science. **What is psychopathology?** - Definitions - Text: Psychopathology = Problematic patterns of thought, feeling or behaviour that disrupt an individual's sense of wellbeing or social or occupational functioning. - WHO: Mental disorder = Clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotional regulation, or behaviour - Interchangeable terminology? - Psychopathology - Mental illness/disorder - Abnormal psychology - Older term (pathologizing?) - Raises a question... what makes thoughts, feeling or behaviour 'abnormal'? **Ways to define 'abnormal'** - Objective symptoms - Statistical abnormality - Social maladjustment - Subjective unhappiness/distress **Objective symptoms** - Description - Mental illness = underlying physical abnormality - Medical model - Illness like any other illness - Underpins DSM - Pros - Qualitative classification and standardised symptom descriptions aid research and communication - Describes some mental illness very well (specific symptoms) - Cons - Can be stigmatising (mental illness is more subtle than physical illnesses) - Fails to describe other mental illness well (diffuse/varied symptoms, e.g. depression) - Implies single causality - Implies universality (definitions of mental illness vary across cultures and historical periods) **Aside: sociohistorical variation** - Example: Homosexuality - DSM-I (1952) - Homosexuality classified as a 'sexual deviation' - Ongoing research and activism to get this changed - Alfred Kinsey (1947): Only 50% pop'n exclusively heterosexual - Evelyn Hooker (1957): Homosexual men just as happy as heterosexual men - Challenged by gay rights activists, esp. after 1969 Stonewall riots - DSM-III (1980) - Removed as disorder - Social values shift perspective on what is considered 'normal' by medical profession - Thomas Szasz (1974) - Mental illness = construct to encourage conforming to societal norms **Aside: cultural variation** - Types and classifications of disorders - Culture bound syndromes - E.g. Hikikomori (Japan), Hwabyeong (Korea) - Expression of disorders (symptoms) - Culturally appropriate displays - Prevalence of disorders - Specific cultural and societal triggers - Conception of the nature and causes of mental illness - Cause in the person or external. - Traditional Aboriginal societies - Unusual behaviour caused by magic (other tribes, evil spirits) and curses **Statistical abnormality** - Description - Thoughts, feelings, or behaviours that fall at the tail ends of a normal distribution A diagram of normal distribution Description automatically generated - Pros - Quantitative focus captures unusual thoughts/feelings/behaviours (accommodates cultural and historical variation) - Precise measurement - Applies well in many contexts (normative assessment) - Cons - Unusual does not imply unwell! - Labels minorities as unwell - Definition of 'illness' dependent on other's behaviour **Social maladjustment** - Description - Judgement of interaction between an individual and their environmental context - Social norms define mental illness - Pros - Accommodates cultural and historical variation - Cons - Suggests mental illness is entirely socially relative (no cross-culturally universal disorders?) - Unusual does not imply unwell! - Labels minorities as unwell - Who defines the norms? - Accommodates cross-cultural variation but not within/multi-cultural variation **Subjective unhappiness/distress** - Description - Mental illness = subjective distress to your thoughts, feelings, or decisions/behaviours - Pros - Common feature of many disorders - Accommodates cultural and historical variation - Affirming to the individual (you have a problem if you feel you have a problem) - Cons - Not a symptom of every disorder (ASPD) - Distress is common in non-disorder contexts. How to distinguish? - E.g. grief vs depression vs prolonged grief disorder (new in DSM-5-TR, 2022)? **Diagnosis and the DSM** **Why do we need to diagnose mental illnesses** **Cons of diagnosing** - Can be stigmatising - By the self, by medical profession, by workplaces, by friends/relatives - Labels can prevent progress - Resigned to or identify negatively with the diagnosis - Assuming diagnosis implies permanence (not always the case) - Encourages assumptions - "You have X, so I already know about you" - Individual variation in symptom presentation and causation may be over-looked **Pros of diagnosing** - For the person, receiving a diagnosis can - Validate their challenges - "I'm not just making it up!" - Relieve and normalise - "I'm not the only one" - Source of pride and community - Neurodiversity pride movement (ASD, ADHD) - Narrative changes: "My functional challenges are due to society, not me" - Facilitates - Research into causes and treatments - Selection of evidence-based treatment - Pharmacological - Selection of evidence-based therapies - Communication between health professionals - Speed of information transmission - Consistency and continuity of care **DSM and ICD** **Major classification systems** - ICD-11 (2022) - International Classification of Disease - WHO-endorsed common system for health problems - DSM-5-TR (2022) - Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders - Published and maintained by American Psychiatric Association - Principal tool for mental health diagnosis in Australia **DSM revisions** - Revisions - DSM-I (1952) - DSM-II (1968) - DSM-III (1980) - DSM-III-R (1987) - DSM-IV (1994) - DSM-IV-TR (2000) - DSM-5 (2013) - DSM-5-TR (2022) - Updating to consider - Improved scientific understanding - Sociohistorical changes (type and prevalence of disorders) - Improved understanding of cultural context - Consistency with ICD groupings and labels **DSM-5-TR: Major diagnostic categories** **Neurodevelopmental disorders** - Intellectual Disabilities - (including Global Developmental Delay) - Communication Disorders - Autism Spectrum Disorder - Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder - Specific Learning Disorder - Motor Disorders - Movement and tic disorders (e.g. Tourette's Disorder) - Other Neurodevelopmental Disorders **Schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders** - Schizotypal (Personality) Disorder - Delusional Disorder - Brief Psychotic Disorder - Schizophreniform Disorder - Schizophrenia - Schizoaffective Disorder - Substance/Medication-Induced Psychotic Disorder - Catatonia Associated with Another Mental Disorder - Catatonic Disorder Due to Another Medical Condition - Unspecified Catatonia - Other Specified Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorder - Unspecified Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorder **Bipolar and related disorders** - Bipolar I Disorder - Bipolar II Disorder - Cyclothymic Disorder - Substance/Medication-Induced Bipolar and Related Disorder - Bipolar and Related Disorder Due to Another Medical Condition - Other Specified Bipolar and Related Disorder - Unspecified Bipolar and Related Disorder **Depressive disorders** - Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder - Major Depressive Disorder - Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia) - Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder - Substance/Medication-Induced Depressive Disorder - Depressive Disorder Due to Another Medical Condition - Other Specified Depressive Disorder - Unspecified Depressive Disorder **Anxiety disorders** - Separation Anxiety Disorder - Selective Mutism - Specific Phobia - Social Anxiety Disorder (Social Phobia) - Panic Disorder - Agoraphobia - Generalized Anxiety Disorder - Substance/Medication-Induced Anxiety Disorder - Anxiety Disorder Due to Another Medical Condition - Other Specified Anxiety Disorder - Unspecified Anxiety Disorder **Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders** - Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder - Body Dysmorphic Disorder - Hoarding Disorder - Trichotillomania (Hair-Pulling Disorder) - Excoriation (Skin-Picking) Disorder - Substance/Medication-Induced Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorder - Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorder Due to Another Medical Condition - Other Specified Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorder - Unspecified Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorder **Trauma- and stressor-related disorders** - Reactive Attachment Disorder - Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder - Posttraumatic Stress Disorder - Acute Stress Disorder - Adjustment Disorders - Persistent Grief Disorder - Other Specified Trauma- and Stressor Related Disorder - Unspecified Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorder **Dissociative disorders** - Dissociative Identity Disorder - Dissociative Amnesia - Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder - Other Specified Dissociative Disorder - Unspecified Dissociative Disorder **Somatic symptom and related disorders** - Somatic Symptom Disorder - Illness Anxiety Disorder - Conversion Disorder (Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder) - Psychological Factors Affecting Other Medical Conditions - Factitious Disorder (includes Factitious Disorder Imposed on Self, Factitious Disorder Imposed on Another) - Other Specified Somatic Symptom and Related Disorder - Unspecified Somatic Symptom and Related Disorder **Feeding and eating disorders** - Pica - Rumination Disorder - Avoidant/Restrictive Food Intake Disorders - Anorexia Nervosa - Bulimia Nervosa - Binge-eating disorder - Other Specified Feeding or eating disorder - Unspecified Feeding or eating disorder **Elimination disorders** - Enuresis - Encopresis - Other Specified Elimination Disorder - Unspecified Elimination Disorder **Sleep-Wake Disorders** - Insomnia Disorder - Hypersomnolence Disorder - Narcolepsy - Breathing-Related Sleep Disorders - Obstructive Sleep Apnoea Hypopnea - Central Sleep Apnoea - Sleep-Related Hypoventilation - Circadian Rhythm Sleep-Wake Disorders - Parasomnias - Non--Rapid Eye Movement Sleep Arousal Disorders - (including sleepwalking, sleep terrors) - Nightmare Disorder - Rapid Eye Movement Sleep Behavior Disorder - Restless Legs Syndrome - Substance/Medication-Induced Sleep Disorder - Other Specified Insomnia Disorder - Unspecified Insomnia Disorder - Other Specified Hypersomnolence Disorder - Unspecified Hypersomnolence Disorder - Other Specified Sleep-Wake Disorder - Unspecified Sleep-Wake Disorder **Sexual Dysfunctions** - Delayed Ejaculation - Erectile Disorder - Female Orgasmic Disorder - Female Sexual Interest/Arousal Disorder - Genito-Pelvic Pain/Penetration Disorder - Male Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder - Premature (Early) Ejaculation - Substance/Medication-Induced Sexual Dysfunction - Other Specified Sexual Dysfunction - Unspecified Sexual Dysfunction **Gender Dysphoria** - Gender Dysphoria - Other Specified Gender Dysphoria - Unspecified Gender Dysphoria **Disruptive, Impulse-Control, and Conduct Disorders** - Oppositional Defiant Disorder - Intermittent Explosive Disorder - Conduct Disorder - Antisocial Personality Disorder - Pyromania - Kleptomania - Other Specified Disruptive, Impulse-Control, and Conduct Disorder - Unspecified Disruptive, Impulse-Control, and Conduct Disorder **Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders** - Substance-Related Disorders - Alcohol-Related Disorders - Caffeine-Related Disorders - Cannabis-Related Disorders - Hallucinogen-Related Disorders - Inhalant-Related Disorders - Opioid-Related Disorders - Sedative-, Hypnotic-, or Anxiolytic-Related Disorders - Stimulant-Related Disorders - Tobacco-Related Disorders - Other (or Unknown) Substance--Related Disorders - Non-Substance-Related Disorders - Gambling Disorder **Neurocognitive Disorders** - Delirium - Other Specified Delirium - Unspecified Delirium - Major and Mild Neurocognitive Disorders due to... - Alzheimer's Disease - Frontotemporal Neurocognitive Disorder - with Lewy Bodies - Vascular Neurocognitive Disorder - Traumatic Brain Injury - HIV Infection - Prion Disease - Parkinson's Disease - Huntington's Disease - Another Medical Condition - Multiple Etiologies - Unspecified Neurocognitive Disorder **Personality Disorders** - Cluster A Personality Disorders - Paranoid Personality Disorder - Schizoid Personality Disorder - Schizotypal Personality Disorder - Cluster B Personality Disorders - Antisocial Personality Disorder - Borderline Personality Disorder - Histrionic Personality Disorder - Narcissistic Personality Disorder - Cluster C Personality Disorders - Avoidant Personality Disorder - Dependent Personality Disorder - Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder - Other Personality Disorders - Personality Change Due to Another Medical Condition - Other Specified Personality Disorder - Unspecified Personality Disorder **Paraphilic Disorders** - Voyeuristic Disorder - Exhibitionistic Disorder - Frotteuristic Disorder - Sexual Masochism Disorder - Sexual Sadism Disorder - Pedophilic Disorder - Fetishist Disorder - Transvestic Disorder - Other Specified Paraphilic Disorder - Unspecified Paraphilic Disorder **Other Mental Disorders** - Other Specified Mental Disorder Due to Another Medical Condition - Unspecified Mental Disorder Due to Another Medical Condition - Other Specified Mental Disorder - Unspecified Mental Disorder **Medication-Induced Movement Disorders and Other Adverse Effects of Medication** - Neuroleptic-Induced Parkinsonism - Other Medication-Induced Parkinsonism - Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome - Medication-Induced Acute Dystonia - Medication-Induced Acute Akathisia - Tardive Dyskinesia - Tardive Dystonia - Tardive Akathisia - Medication-Induced Postural Tremor - Other Medication-Induced Movement Disorder - Antidepressant Discontinuation Syndrome - Other Adverse Effect of Medication **Other Conditions That May Be a Focus of Clinical Attention** - Relational Problems - Problems Related to Family Upbringing - E.g. Impacts of intra-family conflicts - Other Problems Related to Primary Support Group - High family emotionality, separation/divorce, etc. - Abuse and Neglect - Child Maltreatment and Neglect Problems (childhood physical, sexual, - E.g. Child neglect, and physical, sexual or psychological abuse - Adult Maltreatment and Neglect Problems - E.g. Partner neglect, and physical, sexual , psychological abuse by partner/non-partner - Educational and Occupational Problems - Housing and Economic Problems - Other Problems Related to the Social Environment - Problems Related to Crime or Interaction with the Legal System - Other Health Service Encounters for Counselling and Medical Advice - Problems Related to Other Psychosocial, Personal, and Environmental Circumstances - Other Circumstances of Personal History **Diagnostic process** **Diagnostic process example: generalised anxiety disorder 300.03 (F41.1)** - Core symptoms - Excessive anxiety and worry (apprehensive expectation), occurring more days than not for at least 6 months, about several events or activities (such as work or school performance) - The individual finds it difficult to control the worry. - The anxiety and worry are associated with three (or more) of the following six symptoms (with at least some symptoms having been present for more days than not for the past 6 months) (Only one item is required in children): 1. Restlessness or feeling keyed up or on edge 2. Being easily fatigued 3. Difficulty concentrating or mind going blank 4. Irritability 5. Muscle tension. 6. Sleep disturbance (difficulty falling or staying asleep, or restless, unsatisfying sleep). - The anxiety, worry, or physical symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning. - Differential diagnosis - The disturbance is not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication) or another medical condition (e.g., hyperthyroidism). - The disturbance is not better explained by another mental disorder - (e.g., anxiety or worry about having panic attacks in panic disorder, negative evaluation in social anxiety disorder \[social phobia\], contamination or other obsessions in obsessive- compulsive disorder, separation from attachment figures in separation anxiety disorder, reminders of traumatic events in posttraumatic stress disorder, gaining weight in anorexia nervosa, physical complaints in somatic symptom disorder, perceived appearance flaws in body dysmorphic disorder, having a serious illness in illness anxiety disorder, or the content of delusional beliefs in schizophrenia or delusional disorder). **Diagnosis...good or bad** **Criticisms of the DSM** - Revision process closed and secretive - Public advocacy group concerns - Calls to rename some disorders - Calls to drop some disorders - Biggest concern: Diagnoses identified by symptoms only - Syndromes do not disorder - Disorder: Illness or condition that disrupts normal physical or mental functions - Syndrome: A set of symptoms occurring together that characterise a specific disease - Calls to move to more comprehensive system including causal info - National Institute of Mental Health's Research Domain Criteria initiative **WEEK 12- Psychopathology- treatment** **Mental health treatment in Australia** **Statistics on mental health treatment** - Australian bureau of statistics (2020-2022) - 17.4% 16-85yr olds had seen a health professional for mental health in last 12 moths - Gender breakdown - 21.6% females - 12.9% males - Age breakdowns - 22.9% aged 16-34 - 17.4% aged 35-64 - 8.1% aged 65-85 **Who provides treatment for mental health issues** - Formal training and government registration required - Psychologists - Generalists - Generalists+ specialist endorsement qualification (clinical, forensic, educational + developmental, etc) - Medical doctors - General practitioners - Psychiatrists - Other allied health professions with additional specialist training in mental health - Accredited mental health social workers - Accredited mental health occupational therapists - Psychiatric nurses - No government registration but training and professional accreditation available - Counsellors - Behaviour support practitioners - Psychotherapists - Coaches/mentors - Aboriginal and Torres strait islander health workers - Each approaches mental health from slightly different assumptions and perspectives **All about being a psychologist in Australia** **Being a psychologist** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Legally protected terms (require | Where do psychologist work | | on going registration) | | +===================================+===================================+ | - Psychologist | - Wide range of possible | | | workplaces and work styles | | - Clinical psychologists | | | | - Workplaces | | - Clinical neuropsychologist | | | | - Private practice (own or | | - Community psychologist | other practice) | | | | | - Counselling psychologist | - Charity organisations | | | | | - Educational and developmental | - Government services | | psychologist | | | | - Commercial/business | | - Forensic psychologist | | | | - Specialise in type of | | - Health psychologist | client/problem | | | | | - Organisational psychologist | - Generalist, disability, | | | victim services, trauma, | | | neurodiversity, | | | IQ/cognitive, school | | | counselling, forensic, | | | etc | | | | | | - Child, adolescent, adult | | | couples, family, | | | mediation | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Types of psychologists: generalist vs endorsed registration** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Generalist registered | Endorsed psychologist | | psychologist | | +===================================+===================================+ | - Basic training in | - Basic training in | | psychological practice, | psychological practice | | including training in: | PLUS...specific advanced | | | training in one of: | | - Psychological assessments | | | | - Clinical psychology | | - Diagnosis | | | | - Clinical neuropsychology | | - Psychological | | | intervention | - Community psychology | | | | | - Ethics | - Counselling psychology | | | | | - Working with diverse | - Educational and | | client types across the | developmental psychology | | lifespan | | | | - Forensic psychology | | - Most registered psychologists | | | in Australia are generalist | - Health psychology | | registered only | | | | - Organisational psychology | | - Generalist registration | | | allows you to work across a | - Some endorsements required | | very wide range of psychology | for some specific jobs | | positions including private | | | practice, working with | | | children/adolescents, | | | disability, | | | organisational/occupational, | | | etc | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Types of psychologists: 'clinical psychology'** - Psychologist vs clinical psychologist - All psychologists have general registration and can - Work with people with mental health diagnoses - Assess and diagnose mental health issues - Run their own private practice or work for businesses/organisations - Work across a wide range of areas in psychology - Clinical psychologists - Have their generalist registration + additional endorsement in clinical psychology - More training and supervision in the more serious psychological disorders - A few more job options opened - Attract higher pay **Treating mental health issues** **Broad overview of mental illness causes** - Genetic pre-disposition - Epigenetic pre-disposition - Early/past event (adverse childhood experiences, adult trauma, etc) - Acute event stressors(loss, trauma, disaster/war) - Chronic event stressors (conflict, financial stress, illness, bullying, etc) **Biological treatments- psychopharmacological** - Drugs can only be prescribed by medical doctors - Psychiatrists/GP's - Common uses Types of use Timeframe Examples ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Symptom improvement by re-balancing permanent brain chemistry deficit Lifetime/ongoing Medications for genetic (e.g. adhd, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia) or degenerative (e.g. Parkinson's disorder) disorders Symptom relief to facilitate other therapies Regularly for weeks-years E.g. regular use anti-depressants, anxiolytics (anti-anxiety meds), antipsychotics PRN (pro re nata)/as needed symptom relief Occasional/ as needed E.g. Short-term anxiolytics Under research: PRN/ longer-term symptom relief from dissociative/ hallucinogenic drugs One-off treatments with effects lasting days months e.g. Ketamine for chronic depression and pain **Biological treatments- Neuro-anatomical/physiological** - Surgery - Example: epilepsy, severe OCD - Very rare nowadays - Brain stimulation - Electro-convulsive therapy (ECT) - Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) - Electrical implants **Counselling/practical supports** - Support through life's challenges and stressors - Non-judgemental empathetic understanding - Supporting client to make decisions - Providing professionally infirmed advice - Supporting client to find and access services - Social work vs psychologists ![](media/i