Macquarie University Lecture Notes on Internet Pornography and Violence Against Women - PDF

16/10/2023 PSYU/X3399: Psychological Science: Putting Theory into Practice LECTURE 8: INTEGRATING PSYCHOLOGY DISCIPLINES: INTERNET PORNOGRAPHY AND VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN Dr. Shireen Bernstein 1 Macquarie copyright statement This material is provided to you as a Macquarie University student for y...

16/10/2023 PSYU/X3399: Psychological Science: Putting Theory into Practice LECTURE 8: INTEGRATING PSYCHOLOGY DISCIPLINES: INTERNET PORNOGRAPHY AND VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN Dr. Shireen Bernstein 1 Macquarie copyright statement This material is provided to you as a Macquarie University student for your individual research and study purposes only. You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the intellectual property in this This material is provided to you as aLegal and/or disciplinary actions material. Macquarie University may studentbe for taken your if this material is shared without individual research and study purposes only. University’s written permission. You cannot share this the material publicly online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the intellectual property in 2 this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. 1 16/10/2023 Internet Pornography 3 3 The Passion for Porn IT STARTS YOUNG… • Nationally representative survey of U.S. teens, 84.4% of 14 to 18-year-old males and 57% of 14 to 18-year-old females had viewed pornography (Wright et. al, 2021). • Our Watch’s 2018 survey of nearly 2,000 young Australians (aged 15-20) found: ― Median age of first seeing pornography was 13 for young men and 16 for young women. ― Among those who had previously seen pornography (78% of the sample), young men more likely to have actively sought out pornography the first time they viewed it (50%) compared to young women (40%). ― you Over as halfa(56%) of young men surveyed indicated that they viewed This material is provided to pornography at least once per week over the past 12 months, with Macquarie University student for your over 1 in 6 young men (17%) indicating daily viewing. individual research and study purposes ― 15% of young only. women reported at least weekly usage, with 1% of young women indicating daily viewing. You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has OFFICE | FACULTY | DEPARTMENT licence to use) the intellectual property in 4 this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. 4 2 16/10/2023 The Passion for Porn DESPITE CONTROVERSY AND CRIMINALITY • In 2019 alone, equivalent of nearly 6,650 centuries of porn was consumed on Pornhub (Insights, 2019), despite revelations leading to Pornhub being banned in multiple countries and some platforms. • Instagram banned Pornhub in Sept 2022 following Federal Court ruling where Pornhub’s parent company Mindgeek was being sued for distributing child exploitation material • Porn - global, est $97 billion industry, with about $12 billion of that coming from the U.S (NBC, 2015) • SEMrush Traffic Analytics tool: as of May 2021, porn sites received more website traffic in the U.S. than Twitter, Instagram, Netflix, Pinterest, and LinkedIn combined (Semrush, 2021). OFFICE | FACULTY | DEPARTMENT 5 5 What started this passion? TECHNOLOGY AND IP Several concurrent technological developments in the late 1980s made this possible (Mccullough, 2015) 1. Video Graphics Array (VGA) made it possible for images, and specifically digital photographic images, to be rendered on the average personal computer screen. 2. Hard drives made possible the storage of personal files and programs on a user’s personal computer. 3. Once computers were networked, it was possible to distribute or trade materials, either as commerce or via peer-toThis material is provided to you aspornographic a peer. Macquarie University student for your • individual research and study purposes only. You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the intellectual property in 6 this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. 6 3 16/10/2023 What is driving this Passion? TECHNOLOGY AND PORNOGRAPHY • • • • • Price et al. (2015) examined data collected over a forty-year period changes in attitudes to pornography and its consumption among U.S. young adults: consumption increasing across birth generations, beginning in the 1980s cohort. Technology - cheaper and easier to manufacture sexually explicit material and platforms to deliver material. Easy access to the multitude of free pornographic images Cooper (1998) - ‘Triple-A Engine’, namely; accessibility (i.e., millions of sites available 24/7), affordability (i.e., competition keeps prices low or free), and anonymity (i.e., people perceive their communications to be anonymous). Clandestine habit of a few to almost normative pastime for many and COVID and lockdowns amplified this further… 7 7 Impact of COVID INCREASES IN TRAFFIC 2020 This material is provided to you as a Macquarie University student for your individual research and study purposes only. You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the intellectual property in 8 this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. 4 16/10/2023 Website Insights • Searches for "corona virus" on Pornhub first appeared on January 25th2020 and continued to rise with the peak increase of 24.4% on March 25th when they offered free Premium access in multiple countries • February to March 2020: all 27 countries, for which data were provided, showed increases in Porn use - ranging from 4 to 24% (Pornhub, 2020). • Jurisdictions in which Pornhub made its premium services free more substantial increases were observed: 57%, 38%, and 61% increases in Italy, France, and Spain, respectively, each occurring one day after free premium access was offered (Pornhub, 2020). OFFICE | FACULTY | DEPARTMENT 9 9 Impact of COVID CHANGE IN TRAFFIC AUSTRALIA This material is provided to you as a Macquarie University student for your individual research and study purposes only. You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the intellectual property in 10 this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. Australia: Up to the end of 2020, there were around 28,500 cases of COVID-19, with 2 distinct peaks —one in March/April (affecting all states and territories) and one in June to September (mainly affecting Victoria) (AIHW, 2021). 10 5 16/10/2023 Empirical evidence Impact of COVID-19 on pornography use: Evidence from big data analyses (Lau et. al. 2021) • • • • The daily relative search volume (RSV) data from Google Trends found searching for 'pornography' increased after late March 2020, close to the date when the World Health Organization declared COVID-19 a global pandemic. The number of daily new cases of COVID-19 was positively correlated with the traffic of Pornhub, and the RSV for 'pornography'. Moderation analysis - significant main effect of daily new cases of COVID-19 and the RSV for 'social distancing' in predicting Pornhub traffic/RSV for 'pornography’. The RSV for 'social distancing' significantly moderated the relationship between daily new cases and Pornhub traffic/RSV for 'pornography’. That is - a stronger COVID-pornography use association was observed with increased social distancing awareness (Lau et al. 2021). 11 11 Empirical evidence • Covid & lockdowns = increases in social isolation, loneliness and stress (Wang et al., 2020) • People with problematic pornography use may also relapse to pornography use in the setting of feeling powerless, hopeless, and disconnected from support programs (Mestre-Bach et al., 2020) • A sharp increase in porn searches was seen in nations where coronavirus was widespread (Zatoni et al., 2020, Pornhub insights) • Aside from the sexual arousal and enhancement, coping, emotional avoidance and boredom are all linked with greater use of pornography (Paul This material is provided&toShim, you2008; as a Peter & Valkenburg, 2011; Bothe et al., 2020) Macquarie University student for your individual research and study purposes only. You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the intellectual property in 12 this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. 12 6 16/10/2023 Pornified Culture of Violence WHY DOES THIS MATTER? • • • • • Can be an avenue to explore sexuality (Arrington-Sanders et al., 2015) Often depicts behaviours that many adults do not perceive as mainstream, nor consider enjoyable, and/or are high risk in terms of sexual health - e.g. only 2–3 % of heterosexual encounters involve condom use (Gorman, Monk-Turner, Fish, 2010) Public health concern– effect on sexual socialisation of young people by influencing their understanding of which sexual behaviours and attitudes are normative, acceptable and rewarding (Wright, Sun, Steffen & Tokunaga, 2014) Positive correlation demonstrated between perceived realism of IP and degree of influence on an individual’s sexual development (Peter and Valkenburg 2010) Heterosexual men’s interest and engagement in dominant behaviours: both interest in watching and more frequent consumption of IP associated with men’s desire to engage in, or having already engaged in, behaviours such as hair pulling, slapping, choking, and verbal abuse etc (Wright et al., 2014). 13 The IP and Violence link OBJECTIFICATION THEORY - SOCIOLOGY Sexual objectification: instrumentalization or division of a woman's body, body parts, or sexual functions from her personhood (Fredrickson and Roberts,1997) • Prioritising of female genitalia in IP, often to exclusion of female actor’s face (Fritz & Paul, 2017). • Exemplified by particular sexual acts that suggest a women is simply an instrumental sexual object. • IP depicts women as entities whose primary function is male sexual gratification • Men depicted This material is provided to you as aas socially powerful and physically violent = reinforces assumptions about gendered sexual behaviour (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997; Macquarie University student for your Wood, 1997). individual research and study purposes only. • Women are often passive and coerced or “tricked” into sexual acts • You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the intellectual property in 14 this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. 14 7 16/10/2023 The IP and Violence link WHAT DO WE KNOW? • • • IP normalising sex acts most women do not enjoy and may experience to be degrading, painful or violating (Crabbe and Corlett 2010; Stanley et al., 2018, Fahs et al., 2014; Marston & Lewis,2014). Whether pornography consumption is a reliable correlate of sexually aggressive behaviour continues to be debated. Meta‐analysis (Wright, Tokunga, Kraus, 2015) on pornography consumption and actual acts of sexual aggression based on general population studies ― 22 studies from 7 different countries ― Consumption associated with sexual aggression in the US and internationally, among both males and females ― Seen in both cross‐sectional and longitudinal studies ― Associations stronger for verbal than physical sexual aggression, although both were significant. 15 15 Theoretical Underpinnings THE MEDIA VIOLENCE LINK Cognitive: Priming Theory: (Berkowitz, 1984, 1990, 1993) – violent media activates or ‘primes’ other aggressive thoughts, evaluations, and behaviours such - greater willingness to use violence in interpersonal situations. • Social learning theory: young children imitate almost any specific behaviours they see, including aggressive acts seen in media (Bandura, 1977) • Social/Learning & Behaviour: Connection between observation and through three social-cognitive structures This material is providedbehaviour to you asacquired a (Bushman Huesmann, 2001; Huesmann, 1988, 1998): Macquarie University student for & your 1. schemas about a hostile world individual research and study purposes only. You cannot share this material publicly 2. scripts for solving social problem that focus on aggression online without permission. Macquarie 3. normative beliefs that aggression is acceptable • University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the intellectual property in 16 this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. 16 8 16/10/2023 Psychological Underpinnings THE MEDIA VIOLENCE LINK – SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY General Aggression Model (GAM) (Bushman & Anderson, 2002) repeated violent media exposure increase in aggressive beliefs and attitudes an enhancement of aggressive perceptual schemata a deepening of aggression desensitization & an increase in aggressive personality attributes aggressive behaviour when an environmental trigger is available (individual is “primed” to react aggressively) 17 17 The IP violence link HOW MIGHT IP GUIDE SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR? Substantial theory explains processes through which exposure to media violence can cause short & long-term increases in aggression and also contribute to violent behaviour (Bandura, 1977; Berkowitz, 1993; Eron, 1963; Huesmann, 1988, 1998) • Schema: describes a pattern of thought or behavior that organises categories of information and the relationships among them. • Cognitive: Gender Schema theory (Bem 1981) – explains the development and consequences of sex typing/how children acquire sex-defined characteristics. During adolescence, understanding of socially dominant This material is provideddefinitions to you asofamale and female roles is extended and refined. Macquarie University •student your and socio-cultural context defines how to evaluate and Physicalfor maturing handle purposes these changes and prompts development of social and sexual selves individual research and study only. in ways that are congruent with socially prevailing gender roles. You cannot share this material publicly • online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the intellectual property in 18 this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. 18 9 16/10/2023 Theoretical Underpinnings HOW MIGHT IP GUIDE SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR? • • Sexual Script theory (Learning & Behaviour) – Huesmann (1986) - three components to understanding media effects on behaviour: the acquisition of behavioural scripts, their activation and their application Acquisition effect occurs when an observer learns a new behavioural script, of which he or she was not previously aware (Wright, 2011a). Activation of a script occurs when media exposure provides a cue for retrieval: ― Variety of IP provides the opportunity to acquire new sexual scripts and to abstract higher order scripts (Huesmann, 1986) to form general rules, such as notions of female desire and malleability of consent portrayed in IP (Paul, 2010; Peter & Valkenburg, 2010; Stanley et al., 2016). ― Activation can occur with stimuli other than the original media source of the script, such as via sexual arousal – applied in this context (Wright, 2011) 19 19 A Vocal Minority disagrees CRITICS OF MEDIA VIOLENCE LINK • • Personality: Viewers' pre-existing level of aggression draws them to violent media rather than use promoting aggressive behaviour (Elson & Ferguson, 2014). This effect is found BUT longitudinal studies, statistical modelling and experiments all show causal effects as well. Social violence is falling but violent media use is increasing, so there can be no connection: This argument seems to make sense at face value, but has several flaws: ― Nearly all the research is about everyday aggression, not the much more severe category of ‘acts of violence’ This material is provided to you as a ― Moderate aggression and violence are always multifactorial, so it is Macquarie University student for yourto ascertain accurately just what contribution a single factor impossible individual research and study purposes only. makes You cannot share this material ― Thepublicly multifactorial nature of societal violence means that some contributing factors can be increasing whilst others are decreasing, online without permission. Macquarie regardless of the 20 University is the copyright owner of (or hasoverall trend. licence to use) the intellectual property in 20 this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. 10 16/10/2023 A Vocal Minority disagrees CRITICS OF MEDIA VIOLENCE LINK • • • • • Some critics suggest the GAM theory does not adequately allow for individual differences due to biology/personality. But detailed applications of the GAM clearly factor in these and many other influences (Anderson & Bushman, 2002; Bushman & Anderson, 2002; Warburton & Anderson, 2015, 2019). Some critics have also questioned the validity and relevance of social cognitive theories - odd approach given their huge evidence base Critics also suggest that the small effect sizes found are not meaningful. Recent theorists have noted that many smaller psychological effects are very important (e.g.. Funder & Ozer, 2019), as are many very small effects found in medicine. 21 21 A Vocal Minority disagrees CRITICS OF MEDIA VIOLENCE LINK • Criticisms have been made of the validity of laboratory measures of aggression, and note an issue with the external validity of eliciting aggressiveness in a lab: ― Some lab measures of aggression are better than others (e.g., Ritter & Eslea, 2005) but a number are well validated, including currently used paradigms such as the CRTT (e.g., Warburton & Bushman, 2019) ― All lab studies have external validity issues, the key is This material is provided to you as a across multiple study types. This triangulation of replication Macquarie University student for your evidence is demonstrated in media violence research - effects individual research and study purposes only. cross-sectional correlational studies, in lab experiments, You cannot share this material publiclystudies over time, observational studies and brain longitudinal online without permission.imaging Macquarie studies. 22 University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the intellectual property in 22 this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. 11 16/10/2023 Why the debate matters WHO IS WATCHING? IP EXPOSURE AND CHILDREN Note the 4pm spike – who do you think is watching? school kids 23 23 IP and young people TECHNOLOGY AND ACCESSIBILITY Teens spent an average of 14.4 hours a week online – males spent more time online (15 hours) than females (13.8 hours). Among the top five negative online experiences of teens included receiving inappropriate, unwanted content such as pornography or violent material (20%) (eSafety, 2021) • Most of the the free mainstream IP sites have NO barriers to entry for under 18s, including Pornhub, one of the most popular free sites. • The 2023 Australian Child Maltreatment Study (Mathews et al) showed in recent years, prevalence of child sexual abuse by other adolescents, and This material is providedespecially to you as by athose who are or were in a romantic relationship, has substantially increased (forthcoming analysis) – association of porn Macquarie University student for your viewing is one of the factors being considered for role in this result individual research and study purposes only. • You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the intellectual property in 24 this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. 24 12 16/10/2023 Exposure of Children to IP EXPOSURE CHARACTERISTICS • • • Prevalence rates of intentional exposure - 7% of 10- to 17-year-olds in a U.S. study (Ybarra & Mitchell, 2005) to 59% in a more recent study of Taiwanese 10-12th-grade students (Chen, Leung, Chen, & Yang, 2013). Prevalence rates for unintentional exposure of children to IP - 19% amongst 10- to 12-year-olds in the U.S (Mitchell et al., 2003) to 60% among Australian girls and 84% among Australian boys aged 16 to 17 (Flood, 2007). U.S. study found average first exposure age was 11 years, with 100% of 15-year-old males and 80% of 15-year-old females reporting they had been exposed to violent, degrading IP (Horvath et al., 2013). 25 25 Exposure of children to IP EXPOSURE CHARACTERISTICS • UK survey by the National Centre for Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC) of more than 1,000 children (11-16 years) found that at least half had been exposed to IP (Martellozzo et al., 2016). Almost all (94%) seen IP by age 14. 39% of 13-14 year olds and 42% of 15-16 year olds said IP had given them “ideas about the type of sex to try out”. In an Australian study by Lim et al. (2017) in a sample of Victorians aged 1529 years, the authors reported that: ― 87% of participants reported ever viewing pornography This material is provided to you as a ― Male participants reported higher frequency of pornography viewing Macquarie University student forfemale your participants than individual research and study purposes ― median age atonly. first exposure to IP was 13 years for males and 16 years You cannot share this material publicly for females • online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the intellectual property in 26 this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. 26 13 16/10/2023 Exposure of children to IP EXPOSURE CHARACTERISTICS • Our Watch survey of nearly 2,000 young Australians (aged 15-20) (2018) found: ― young women were more likely to have first come across pornography by accident (56%) compared to young men (46%). ― For those who sought it out, the primary motivation for first doing so for both young women and young men was curiosity (78%). ― Other motivations included sexual stimulation (26%), keeping up with peers (18%), and sexual education (14%). ― Respondents reported a mix of views and feelings about pornography, often holding conflicting views at the same time. ― 62% of young women and 47% of young men reported that they think that pornography is not at all realistic 27 27 IP Exposure & Consequences WHAT CAN WE DO ABOUT IT? • • • • • Key focus of my PhD: sexual socialization of adolescents and young adults Exposure characteristics – when, how, affective & cognitive reaction Exploring whether IP and sexually coercive/violent practices are being enacted by young adults in sexual relationships Is there a relationship between aggressive sexual behaviours and IP? Problematic use of IP – how do we assess this? This material is provided to you as a Macquarie University student for your individual research and study purposes only. You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the intellectual property in 28 this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. 28 14 16/10/2023 Publications WHY I THINK IT MATTERS… 1. Bernstein, S, Warburton, W., Bussey, K. and Sweller, N. (2021) Rule 34: If it exists, there is porn of it…” Insights into the content choices, viewing reasons and attitudinal impact of Internet Pornography among young adults. https://doi.org/10.1080/26929953.2021.1986763. Sexual Health and Compulsivity. 2. Bernstein, S., Warburton, W., Bussey, K., & Sweller, N. (2022). Pressure, preoccupation, and porn: The relationship between internet pornography, gendered attitudes, and sexual coercion in young adults. Psychology of Popular Media. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000393 3. Bernstein, S., Warburton, W., Bussey, K., & Sweller, N. (2022). "Beyond the Screen: Violence and Aggression towards Women within an Excepted Online Space" Sexes 3:1. https://doi.org/10.3390/sexes3010007 4. Bernstein, S., Warburton, W., Bussey, K., & Sweller, N. (2022). Mind the Gap: Internet Pornography Exposure, Influence and Problematic Viewing Amongst Emerging Adults. Sexuality Research & Social Policy. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-02200698-8 29 29 Key Findings 3. Theoretical review - consumption of IP represents a credible risk factor in the perpetration of aggression and violence against women. Sexual violence, abuse, and degradation of women is commonly depicted in mainstream heterosexual IP. Contention is that depictions of violence in IP may contribute to real world aggression and violence against women, with two relevant spheres of inquiry proposed. ― IP as a ‘zone of cultural exception’, in which the perpetration of violent and degrading acts against women are eroticized and celebrated, despite such behaviours being considered antisocial in wider society. This excepted status is enabled by the operation of the third person effect to negate the detrimental effects of IP. ― The objectification and dehumanization of women in IP and the use of moral disengagement by viewers to enable their disavowal of any harm in the depicted violence. This material is provided to you as a Early Exposure : Most male (57.3%) and female (33.7%) respondents recalled their first Macquarie University 4.student for your exposure to IP as occurring between 12 and 14 years; however, 28.2% of males and 23.7% individual research and study only. as occurring between 9 and 11 years, and a small proportion females purposes recalled their exposure were exposed even earlier. Higher IP viewing frequency, positive affective responses to IP at You cannot share this material publicly current exposure, elevated sexual impulsivity and the endorsement of IP-related sexual online without permission. Macquarie beliefs were all found to be associated with self-assessed problematic IP viewing (Bernstein 30 et al. 2022). of (or has University is the copyright owner licence to use) the intellectual property in 30 this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. 15 16/10/2023 Key Findings 1. IP viewing motivations linked to mood management or emotional avoidance were positively associated with problematic IP (PIP) viewing. Higher levels of sexual sensation seeking, adversarial sexual beliefs and moral disengagement were also associated with the tendency to adopt personal sexual behaviours consistent with those viewed in IP (IP-congruent behaviour) and PIP viewing. Sensation seeking, moral disengagement, IP-related fantasizing and the interaction between moral disengagement and PIP viewing were all significant predictors of IP-congruent behaviour (Bernstein et. al., 2021). 2. Environment and person factors that might lead individuals to be more susceptible to the development of problematic IP viewing, and the endorsement of gendered and sexually aggressive beliefs and attitudes were examined. Positive associations were found between problematic IP viewing, stereotypical gendered attitudes, IPcongruent beliefs (including beliefs that endorse sexual coercion). Problematic IP viewing was also associated with psychological vulnerability factors such as higher levels of sexual impulsivity, depression, and the tendency to dissociate. Higher stereotypical gendered beliefs, higher IP-congruent sexual beliefs, and higher sexual impulsivity all uniquely contributed to the prediction of problematic IP viewing (Bernstein et al. 2022). 31 31 Why others think it matters EFFECTS ON BEHAVIOUR AND WELLBEING • Internationally, longitudinal research found that early and more frequent exposure to pornography are both associated with initiation of sexual behaviours at younger age amongst adolescents (Brown & L’Engle, 2009; Vandenbosch & Eggermont, 2013) • Young people report using IP as a form of sexual education and incorporating pornography-inspired practices into their real life sexual experiences (Svedin, Kerman & Priebe, 2011) • Correlation noted between poor mental health and frequent use of pornography–Swedish study found nearly 20% of daily pornography users depressive This material is providedhad to you as a symptoms, significantly more than infrequent users (12.6%) (Svedin et al.). Macquarie University student for your • Increased self-objectification and body surveillance related to use of IP for individual research and study purposes only. both young males & females (Vandenbosch & Eggermont, 2013, You cannot share this material publicly et al, 2006; Martellozzo et al., 2016; Tomson et al., Häggström-Nordin online without permission. Macquarie 2014). University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the intellectual property in 32 this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. 32 16 16/10/2023 Why others think it matters CULTURAL ENDORSEMENT OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN • • • Exposure to violence against women in media linked with: reduced sympathy for female victims of violence, increased rape myth acceptance, increased attitudes in support of sexual violence, more stereotypical gender role attitudes, increased negative attitudes toward women, and increased aggression toward women (Emmers-Sommer, Pauley, Hanzal, & Triplett, 2006; Fischer & Greitemeyer, 2006; Hald, Malamuth, & Yuen, 2010; Kahlor & Eastin, 2011; Kistler & Lee, 2010; Malamuth, Addison, & Koss, 2000; Weisz & Earls, 1995). Portrayal of sexual violence in these media further augments negative effects (Fischer & Greitemeyer, 2006; Hald et al., 2010; Malamuth et al., 2000; Weisz & Earls, 1995). Growing evidence base on preventing violence against women and children by addressing underlying determinants : messages mainstream IP generates about gender, equality and (hetero)sexuality, how these messages might shape the attitudes, beliefs and behaviours of children and young people in forming respectful, equitable romantic/sexual/intimate relationships (Quadara et al., 2017). 33 33 Attitudes and behaviour CULTURAL ENDORSEMENT OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN The 2021 National Community Attitudes towards violence against women found: 25% of respondents strongly or somewhat agreed that a man may not realise a woman does not want to have sex if he is very sexually aroused 21% of respondents agreed (strongly or somewhat) This material is provided to you asthat a a woman who sends her partner a naked picture of Macquarie University student for your herself is partly responsible if the individual research and study purposes only. partner then shares the image You cannot share this without material herpublicly consent online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the intellectual property in 34 this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. reveals concerning community support for gender role attitudes relating to men’s entitlement to sex, sexual dominance, and insatiable and uncontrollable sex drives and women– minimises men’s responsibility for sexual violence perpetration and their failure to respect women’s consent objectification linked to victim-blaming attitudes - objectified women are perceived to be more responsible for being sexually assaulted and for imagebased abuse (“revenge porn”) and less worthy of help or support from others (E. Holland & Haslam, 2016; Loughnan et al., 2013; Serpel & Brown, 2022; Spaccatini et al., 2022). 34 17 16/10/2023 Attempts to Counter the paradigm SCHOOL EDUCATION • • • • How do we address this issue? Need to treat young people as agentic rather than passive – educate them to become critical of content & decode messages Most education is in secondary school- Love Bites, Consent Labs, Elephant Ed, R4Respect. Need to engage earlier Concepts need to be established early and reinforced – boundaries, respect, consent, recognising control. The Australian Curriculum Version 9.0, released in May 2022 for implementation from 2023, aims to ensure that students receive more explicit education on positive and respectful relationships and consent but so far only Tas implemented. States and territories implement independently 35 35 IP Literacy Currently NO universally taught IP education programs in Australian schools – instead schools that choose to address this do so with limited presentations/advice by outside agencies/experts on digital safety. • Young people and teachers agree schools should teach about the risks of IP viewing. Prefer peer-led discussions among 16to 18-year-olds, followed by teacher-led discussions and small group work (Baker, 2016). This material is provided to you as a My pilot Macquarie University •student forstudy your of an IP literacy program was well received… • individual research and study purposes only. You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the intellectual property in 36 this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. 36 18 16/10/2023 70% 59.3% 60% A school-based education workshop is a good way to learn about Internet Pornography. 50% 40.7% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 0.0% 0.0% Strongly Disagree Disagree 0.0% Agree Strongly agree I prefer not to answer this question © Shireen Bernstein, Macquarie University, 2020 37 60% 51.9% 48.2% 50% The education workshop increased my understanding of the potential messages contained in Internet Pornography. This material is provided to you as a Macquarie University student for your individual research and study purposes only. You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. Macquarie © Shireen Bernstein, Macquarie 2020 University is the copyright owner of University, (or has licence to use) the intellectual property in 38 this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 0.0% 0.0% Strongly Disagree Disagree 0.0% Agree Strongly agree I prefer not to answer this question 19 16/10/2023 60% 51.9% 48.2% 50% The education workshop increased my understanding of how Internet Pornography might impact personal relationships. 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 0.0% 0.0% Strongly Disagree Disagree 0.0% Agree Strongly agree I prefer not to answer this question © Shireen Bernstein, Macquarie University, 2020 39 60% 55.6% 50% The education workshop increased my understanding of the potential social consequences (how it can impact society more broadly) of Internet Pornography This material is provided to you as a Macquarie University student for your individual research and study purposes only. You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. Macquarie © Shireen Bernstein, Macquarie 2020 University is the copyright owner of University, (or has licence to use) the intellectual property in 40 this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. 44.4% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 0.0% Strongly Disagree 0.0% Disagree 0.0% Agree Strongly Agree I prefer not to answer this question 20 16/10/2023 Reflections WHAT WOULD YOU SAY? • Think about how you would address IP viewing with ― 1. A young person? Reassurance, frank open dialogue. ― 2. Their parents? Maintaining open lines of communication, remaining calm, avoiding shame are key. • • • • Resources : E-safety provides advice for parents about how to discuss IP with your child : https://www.esafety.gov.au/parents/skills-advice/hard-tohave-conversations Parenting and Pornography: https://www.esafety.gov.au/sites/default/files/2019-09/summary-reportparenting-and-pornography.pdf Resources for young people on Its Time we Talked: https://itstimewetalked.com/young-people/ Nationally consistent curriculum is needed. ACARA v9 addresses IP in passing as an optional content elaboration 41 41 ACARA version 9 OPTIONAL CONTENT ELABORATION YEAR 9 & 10 This material is provided to you as a Macquarie University student for your individual research and study purposes only. You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the intellectual property in 42 this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. 42 21 16/10/2023 References Arrington-Sanders R, Harper GW, Morgan A, Ogunbajo A, Trent M, Fortenberry D. (2015) The role of sexually explicit material in the sexual development of same-sexattracted Black adolescent males. Archives of Sexual Behaviour, 44:597-608. Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1963). A comparative test of the status envy, social power, and secondary reinforcement theories of identificatory learning. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67(6), 527–534. doi:10.1037/h0046546 Berkowitz, L. (1993). Aggression: Its causes, consequences, and control. New York: McGraw-Hill. Bernstein, S. (2017) Cultivating a Porn Aesthetic: The Role of Internet Pornography in the Sexual Socialisation of Contemporary Emerging Adults, unpublished manuscript. Bonomi, A., Altenburger, L. E., & Walton, N. L. (2013). “Double Crap!” Abuse and Harmed Identity in Fifty Shades of Grey. Journal of Women's Health, 22(9), 733-744. doi:10.1089/jwh.2013.4344 43 43 References continued Bronstein, C. (2008). No more black and blue: women against violence women and the Warner Communications boycott, 1976-1979 (Case study). Violence Against Women, 14(4), 418-436. doi:10.1177/1077801208314832 Brown JD, L’Engle KL. (2009). X rated: Sexual attitudes and behaviors associated with U.S. early adolescents’ exposure to sexually explicit media, Communication Research, 36:129-51. Bushman, B. J., & Anderson, C. A. (2002). Violent video games and hostile expectations: a test of the general aggression model.(Author Abstract). Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(12), 1679. doi:10.1177/014616702237649 Crabbe, M., & Corlett, D. (2011). Eroticising inequality: Technology, pornography and young people. Redress, 20(1), 11-15. This material is provided to you as a M., & Corlett, D. (2014). Love and Sex in an Age of Pornography. Reality and Risk Project. Retrieved from Macquarie University Crabbe, student for your http://www.itstimewetalked.com.au/resources/love-and-sex/ individual research and study purposes only. N. (2012). Consensual BDSM is not abuse. Fifty Shades IS. Retrieved from You cannot share this Collins, material publicly http://50shadesisdomesticabuse.webs.com/apps/blog/show/42169141-consensual-bdsm-is-not-abuse-fiftyshades-is- Macquarie online without permission. 44 University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the intellectual property in 44 this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. 22 16/10/2023 References continued Cooper, A. (1998). Sexuality and the Internet: Surfing into the new millennium. Cyberpsychology and Behaviour, 1(2), 181-187. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cpb.1998.1.187 Elson, M., & Ferguson, C. J. (2014). Twenty-Five Years of Research on Violence in Digital Games and Aggression: Empirical Evidence, Perspectives, and a Debate Gone Astray. European Psychologist, 19(1), 33-46. doi:10.1027/1016-9040/a000147 Emmers-Sommer, T. M., Pauley, P., Hanzal, A., & Triplett, L. (2006). Love, suspense, sex, and violence: Men’s and women’s film predilections, exposure to sexually violent media, and their relationship to rape myth acceptance. Sex Roles, 55, 311–320. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/ s11199-006-9085-0 Eron, L. D. (1963). Relationship of TV viewing habits and aggressive behavior in children. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67(2), 193–196. doi:10.1037/h0043794 Ferguson, C. J. (2010). Media Violence Effects and Violent Crime: Good Science or Moral Panic? In C. J. Ferguson (Ed.), Violent Crime: Clinical and Social Implications. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Fischer, P., & Greitemeyer, T. (2006). Music and aggression: The impact of sexual-aggressive song lyrics on aggression-related thoughts, emotions, and behavior toward the same and the opposite sex. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 1165– 1176. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1177/0146167206288670 Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R. & Chaffin, M (2009). Juveniles Who Commit Sex Offenses Against Minors, Juvenile Justice Bulletin, December, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention retrierved at https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/227763.pdf 45 45 References continued Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women’s lived experience and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173–206. doi:doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x. Gorman S, Monk-Turner E, Fish J. Free adult internet web sites: How prevalent are degrading acts? Gender Issues. 2010;27:131-45. Hackett, S., Phillips, J., Masson, H., & Balfe, M. (2013). Individual, Family and Abuse Characteristics of 700 British Child and Adolescent Sexual Abusers. Child Abuse Review, 22(4), 232-245. Huesmann, L. R. (1988). An information processing model for the development of aggression. . Aggressive Behavior, 14(1), 13-24. doi:10.1002/1098-2337(1988)14:1<13::AID-AB2480140104>3.0.CO;2-J Huesmann, L. R. (1986). Psychological processes promoting the relation between exposure to media violence and aggressive behavior by the viewer. . Journal of Social Issues,, 42, 125-139. This material is provided to you as a Huesmann, L. R. (1998). The role of social information processing and cognitive schema in the acquisition and maintenance of aggressive behavior. In R. G. Geen & E. Donnerstein (Eds.), Human aggression: Theories, research, and implications for Macquarie University habitual student for your social policy (pp. 73–109). New York: Academic Press. individual research and study purposes only. Lau WK, Ngan LH, Chan RC, Wu WK, Lau BW. Impact of COVID-19 on pornography use: Evidence from big data analyses. PLoS 2021 Dec 21;16(12):e0260386. You cannot share this One. material publicly doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0260386. PMID: 34932564; PMCID: PMC8691607. online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the intellectual property in 46 this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. 46 23 16/10/2023 References continued Mccullough, B. (2015) A history of Internet Porn, Internet History Podcast, Amalgamated Internets, retrieved at http://www.internethistorypodcast.com/2015/01/history-of-internet-porn/ NBC News. (2015). Things are looking up in America's porn industry. Retrieved from https://www.nbcnews.com/business/businessnews/things-are-looking-americas-porn-industry-n289431 Mestre-Bach, G., Blycker, G. R., & Potenza, M. N. (2020). Pornography use in the setting of the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 9(2), 181–183. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.2020.00015 Paul B, Shim JW. (2008) Gender, sexual affect, and motivations for internet pornography. International Journal Sexual Health, 20: 187-99. Peter J, Valkenburg PM. The use of sexually explicit internet material and its antecedents: a longitudinal comparison of adolescents and adults. Arch Sex Behav. 2011;40:1015–25 Pornhub Insights (2019). Pornhub Year in Review 2019 retrieved at https://www.pornhub.com/insights/2019-year-inreview#countries Pornhub Coronavirus Insights (2020) retrieved at https://www.pornhub.com/insights/corona-virus Svedin, Kerman & Priebe (2011). Frequent users of pornography. A population based epidemiological study of Swedish male adolescents, Journal of Adolescence, 34:779-88. 47 47 References continued Semrush Blog. (2021). Top 100: The Most Visited websites in the US—2021 Top websites edition. Accessed on 24 May, 2021. Retrieved from https://www.semrush.com/blog/most-visited-websites/ Tyler, M., & Tarzia, L. (2015). Violence dressed up as erotica: Fifty Shades of Grey and abuse. The Conversation. Retrieved from http://theconversation.com/violence-dressed-up-as-erotica-fifty-shades-of-grey-and-abuse-37589 Quadara, A., El-Murr, A. & Latham, J. (2017). The effects of pornography on children and young people: An evidence scan. (Research Report). Melbourne: Australian Institute of Family Studies. Vandenbosch L, Eggermont S. (2013). Sexually explicit websites and sexual initiation: Reciprocal relationships and the moderating role of pubertal status. Journal Research of Adolescence, 23:621-34. Wang C, Pan R, Wan X, Tan Y, Xu L, Ho CS, et al. Immediate psychological responses and associated factors during the initial stage of the 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) epidemic among the general population in China. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17:1729. Wright PJ, Sun C, Steffen NJ, Tokunaga R.S. (2014) Pornography, alcohol, and male sexual dominance. Communication Monographs, 82:25270. Wright, P. J., Paul, B., & Herbenick, D. (2021). Preliminary insights from a U.S. probability sample on adolescents’ pornography exposure, media psychology, sexuala aggression. J.Health Commun., 1-8. doi:10.1080/10810730.2021.1887980 This material is provided to youandas SA, Currie AB, O’Sullivan LF (2014). Schoolgirls and soccer moms: A content analysis of free “teen” and “MILF” online pornography, Macquarie University Vannier student for your Journal Sex Research, 51:253-64 individual research and study Zattoni, F., Gül, M.,purposes Soligo, M. et al. The only. impact of COVID-19 pandemic on pornography habits: a global analysis of Google Trends. Int J Impot Res (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41443-020-00380-w You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. Macquarie 48 University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the intellectual property in 48 this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. 24 16/10/2023 49 This material is provided to you as a Macquarie University student for your individual research and study purposes only. You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the intellectual property in this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. 25