Lecture 10.docx

Lecture 10 Implicit self Sense that one has a body that can experience and act on the world and that this body is separate from the world We know this is present from birth bc of rooting reflex Self-concept Organized set of beliefs about oneself Answers to “Who am I?” Self concept include...

Lecture 10 Implicit self Sense that one has a body that can experience and act on the world and that this body is separate from the world We know this is present from birth bc of rooting reflex Self-concept Organized set of beliefs about oneself Answers to “Who am I?” Self concept includes personality traits, physical characteristics, abilities, values, roles. When does rudimentary self-concept emerge? ~18 months as shown by children passing rouge test Also start using “me” pronoun n call themselves by name around this age Children’s self-concept develops primarily by… internalizing others’ perceptions of them some argue that without social interaction, development of a self-concept isn’t possible happens directly and indirectly. Direct internalization of others’ perceptions caregiver describes a child a certain way and the child incorporates that description into their self-concept Ex: being told they’re good at math Indirect internalization of others’ perceptions how children are treated Ex: caregiving experiences shape internal working models First characteristics present in children’s self-concept . Gender central to their sense of self. When does basic gender identity form? 2.5-3 yrs old Identify as boy/girl, label others as boy/girl Gender socialization Process where children learn about social expectations, attitudes, and behaviors associated with girls and boys. How does gender socialization happen? internalizing the messages received about gender from caregivers and society When does gender socialization begin? Starts early Parents of day-old infants describe newborn girls as softer and quieter than newborn boys Not due to infants’ behavior as indicated by Baby X studies Baby X studies Studies in which researchers label the same infant as a boy or a girl then observe how adults interact with the infant. Infants labelled boy: rated as bigger, stronger, louder, encouraged to be active Infants labelled girl: received more talk and nurturance Study: How does gender shape parents’ expectations about motor skills? Method Parents of 11-month-old estimated the steepest slope their infants could crawl down without falling by setting the angle on a mechanical sloping walkway for the infants Infants then tested their actual crawling skills down slopes of different angles Results: Parents of girls underestimate infant’s crawling ability Parents of boys accurately estimaten their ability When tested on actual sskills, boys and girls did not differ on the slopes they could actually crawl Suggests that gender differences in motor skills only exist in parent’s perception Subtle gender socialization Play Language differences Toy purchases Division of household chores Play: subtle gender socialization Parents present boys with more physical challenges than girls Offer girls more help Language differences: subtle gender socialization Use more emotion words with girls than boys in early childhood Emotion understanding thus develops earlier in girls Toy purchases: subtle gender socialization Boys have more toy trucks by 12 months Girls have 5x more pink toys by 12 months Division of household chores: subtle gender socialization Homes w more traditional gender roles in completing chores are communicating gender roles Media exposure: subtle gender socialization More tv viewing by preschoolers associated with them more likely saying that people see "boys as better than girls" Self-socialization Once a child identifies with a gender, they actively seek out gender-related info and conform their behavior to this info This is childrens own role in their gender development When does self-socialization begin? 3-5 yrs old: rigid, gender-stereotyped behaviors Rigid, stereotype behaviors exhibited by 3-5 year olds Preference for toys n clothes consistent w gender identity Preference for same-gender playmates This is cross cultural Self-socialization behaviors in 3-5 year olds is due to lack of gender constancy Gender constancy Understanding that gender remains the same regardless of superficial changes to appearance or behavior Self-socialization at 6 years old 6-yrs old: gendered behavior relaxes because gender constancy is achieved Accept more non-gendered appearance and toy preferences in themselves n others As children get older, they acquire more complex ideas and expectations about gender that includes traits, roles, abilities, etc Incorporate these into self-concepts and adjust behavior accordingly Ex: girls are quiet and well-behaved. Boys are active and sporty. 3 implications of Gender Identity Gender is a central characteristic that organizes children’s self-concepts Adherence to gender stereotypes can unnecessarily limit children’s development in educational aspirations, social development, and emotional expression Extent to which a child behaves in gender-consistent ways is associated with level of peer acceptance Gender expectation adherence and peer acceptance Even though children increase their gender flexibility with age, they tend to reject peers who do not behave in typically gendered ways Greater engagement with peers of same gender is powerful way that gender stereotypes and identities are reinforced. When parents have more egalitarian views and behaviours… children tend to have less traditional gender-role attitudes Gender neutral parenting Gender neutral parenting conscious parenting practice to encourage children to explore and express themselves in a way that is not defined by traditional gender roles Common in WEIRD countries E.g., not enforcing gender-specific colours, avoiding gender-specific language, encouraging all activities Gender Development in Cis vs. Transgender Children Sex: assigned at birth usually based on external genitalia Cisgender children: Children who identify with their assigned sex Transgender children: Children who don’t identity with their assigned sex Study: Comparison of gender development of trans and cis children Method: 317 trans children. Ages 3-12 who had socially transitioned Outward appearance n pronouns are consistent with gender identity 316 gender and age matched cisgender children 189 cis siblings of the trans children Reported on strength of gender identity n gender stereotyped preferences Results: Trans children show strong identification and preferences aligned with currect gender in a way that is very similar to cis children Implications of study: Trans children’s gender development follows similar patterns to cis children’s development Lack of differences between siblings and controls suggests that there is nothing unique about home gender socialization of trans children Ex: Parents are not socializing trans identity Self-socializing plays a strong role in gender identity Suggests that there is something internal about gender identity, not just a result of socialization Children from an early age may be selectively attending to broader societal messages regarding the gender they feel they are Self-concept in early childhood: 3-4 yrs old Gender is central to self-concept Concrete, observable characteristics focus on physical attributes and physical activities Unrealistically positive and confident Result of cognitive limitations Ex: early childhood I’m 3 years old, I’m a boy, and my name is Jason. I live with my mommy and daddy who really love me. My mommy makes me yummy spaghetti! I am going to get my own baby sister for Christmas! I have blue eyes and a kitty that is orange and a television in my own room, it’s all mine! I know all of my ABC’s, listen: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, J, L, K, O, P, Q, R, X, Y, Z. I can run real fast. I can kick a soccer ball real far, all the way from one end of the field to the other. I’m really strong. I can lift this chair, watch me! Self-concept in middle childhood: 7-12 yrs old Describe self using personality traits and inner qualities Ex: im shy More abstract Self-concept is more balanced and accurate Includes weakness but still positive overall Changes in self-concept from early childhood due to: Increased cognitive ability to use higher-order concepts and to think about multiple qualities simultaneously Greater engagement in social comparison and more strongly influences by the opinions of others Ex: Self-concept in adolescence: 13-18 yrs old Can think of themselves in increasingly abstract ways “im extroverted, because im talkative, friendly, …” But also More intense concerns about social acceptance which heavily influence self-concept Aware of differences in behavior in different social settings leading to confusion and many questions about identity Teens’ concerns about social acceptance which heavily influence self-concept leads to Egocentrism Esp in early-mid adolescence Assume that their thoughts and feelings are more unique than they really are "you don't understand me" Imaginary audience: belief that everyone is very focused on their appearance and behavior Phenomena of egocentrism in teens Imaginary audience Forming an identity is the primary… Primary psychosocial task of adolescence/early adulthood Identity is formed through a process of which 2 things? Exploration Commitment Exploration Questioning of parental and societal values and experimenting with various facets of identity Including appearance, hobbies, traits, friends, courses, etc. i.e.: strongly taking on a subculture identity Commitment Consolidation and acceptance of who one is as indicated by the choices one makes i.e. choosing a track in CEGEP Marcia’s identity statuses: Identity diffusion Identity moratorium Identity foreclosure Identity achievement commitment and exploration are the parameters Typical trajectory: diffusion moratorium/foreclosure achievement Identity diffusion: Lack of exploration of options and no commitments made Due to lack of interest in own identity or indecision Common in children If persists into late adolescence/adulthood, associated with feeling disconnected, being easily influenced by others, and little sense of purpose Moratorium: Active exploration of various roles but no commitments yet Brought about by awareness of multiple elves and exposure to different identity options Feelings of confusion and anxiety are normal at this status Necessary for identity achievement Foreclosure: Commitment to a life path without having explored alternatives Due to: Parents making decisions for teen without their input Teen strongly identifies with a parents and wishes to follow in their footsteps Foreclosure is more likely to occur in… obedient children authoritatian parenting Foreclosure: Potential problems Committed to an identity that is not a good fit for their authentic self Commitment is less strong Most teens are in what identity status? moratorium or foreclosure Identity achievement: Completed phase of exploration and commitment to an internally driven identity Associated with most positive mental health and social outcomes Usually achieved in early adulthood Biggest gains in identity occur in university due to greater exposure to different lifestyles, beleifs, and career options Criticisms of Marcia’s identity status theory Research into identity statuses conducted in WEIRD samples Typically progression and outcomes may differe in non-WEIRD societies Identity development is a continuous process, not limited to adolescence Life events in adulthood can restart the process Ex: losing a job Summary of Development of Self Gender is a central characteristic that shapes children’s self-concepts and level of peer acceptance 2.5 – 3 years old: form basic gender identity Gender identity is formed through gender socialization and selfsocialization Children’s self-concepts become more abstract and more balanced, as they age and are increasingly shaped by interactions with peers Central task of adolescence is developing an identity 4 identity statuses: diffused, moratorium, foreclosure, achieved Status has consequences for psychological and social functioning Play Voluntary activities done for inherent enjoyment Not restricted to children Looks different depending on a child’s age Non-social play Play that doesn’t involve the participation of peers 3 types of nonsocial play 1. Unoccupied play: 2. Solitary play 3. Onlooker play Unoccupied play – nonsocial play child briefly watches things around thembut nothing holds their attention for long Birth-3 months Solitary play – nonsocial play child is focused on their own activity uninterested in playing with others 3 months-2 years old Onlooker play – nonsocial play : child watches other children's play May ask questions, but wont join in Begins around 2 years old Social play Play that involves participation of peers 3 types of social play Parallel play Associative play Cooperative play Progression onto more advanced forms of play doesn’t mean that children no longer engage in less advanced form of play Parallel play – social play Children play next to each other, possibly doing the same activity but do not interact much Begins between in 2-3 years old Associative play – social play children play together, engaging sometimes, but have different goals Begins between 3-4 years old Cooperative play – social play Children play together and are working towards a common goal Begins 4+ years old Play is critical… Learning Three types of learning that play is critical for Social-emotional development Cognitive development Motor development Play teaches what pertaining to social-emotional development? Learn to cooperate Develop theory of mind Play teaches what pertaining to cognitive development? Practice problem-solving Learning about the world through trial and error Develop language skills Play teaches what pertaining to motor development? Unoccupied play fosters motor skills Importance of play UN recognizes child’s right “to engage in play and recreational activities appropriate to the age of the child” People have even argued that from an evolutionary perspective, we consider play as fun because it helps us to learn Study: How does teaching affect exploratory play? Method: 4-6 year olds shown a toy with many plastic tubes 2 experimental groups Accident: adult accidentally bumped into tube, making it squeak Teaching: adult showed the child that the tube squeaks How does the child play with the toy? Results: Children played longer and tried more different actions when the experiment squeaked the toy accidentally. Teaching discouraged the children from discovery during play Implications Letting children play spontaneously allows them to learn Adults can best support play (and learning) by following the children’s lead so that a child can build knowledge themselves Friend A person that’s not a relative with whom an individual has an intimate, reciprocated, and positive relationship 2 most important factors in children’s friendships Similarity Age, acceptance by peers, personality (shyness, cooperativeness, etc), level of negative emotions, academic motivations. Proximity Live in the same neighborhood Go to the same school Participate in same extracurricular activities Gender and choice of friends More likely to be friends with kids of the same gender Preference emerges around 3 years of age. Peaks at 13 Age 13: time w different gender friends increases, esp for girls Developmental trajectory of friendships: 1-2 yrs old show preference of some children over others Touch them more often Smile more at them Developmental trajectory of friendships: 2-3 yrs old developing more complex social behaviors Ex: imitating peers’ behaviors, cooperative problem solving, turn taking Emergence of parallel play Developmental trajectory of friendships: 3-5 yrs old kids have a concept of friendship Most kids have atleast one friends Emergence of preference for same gender peers (3-4 yrs of age) How is friendship defined for 3–5-year-olds? Defined as playing together Best friend = peer a child plays w most But friends at 3-5 years old also have more conflict than non-friends More likely to cooperate to resolve conflict than non-friends Developmental trajectory of friendships: 6-8 yrs old Define friendship on basis of shared activities with peers Ex: hes my friend because we both like to play soccer Developmental trajectory of friendships: 9-12 yrs old definition of friendship expands to include trust, care, help Developmental trajectory of friendships: Adolescence Friendship primarly defined by self-disclosure and intimacy Share secrets, fears, anxieties Friendship takes on central importance Age 13: starts having more friends of different genders Girls’ vs boys’ friendships As children get older, gender differences emerge in what they want out of friendship Girls (vs boys): Desire more closeness and dependency in friendships But comes w more worrying and stress about friendships Girls and boys show similar levels of conflict and stability in friendships Sociometric Status Degree to which children are liked vs disliked by peers How is sociometric status measured? Measured by having children anonymously nominate peers in their class: that they like: positive nominations that they dislike: negative nominations Each child is classified into one of 5 status groups Popular Rejected Average Neglected Controversial Popular kids 11% of kids Liked by many peers disliked by few Popular kids tend to be: Socially skilled Good emotion-regulation skills Assertive but not aggressive Tend to have factors that give them high status Attractive, athletic, have popular friends, etc. Rejected kids 13% of kids Liked by few peers disliked by many Tend to have ewer positive social skills compared to peers 2 types of rejected kids Rejected-aggressive Rejected-withdrawn Rejected-aggressive 40-50% of rejected kids Tend to show high levels of hostility, threatening behavior, physical aggression, delinquency Negative cycle: aggression leads to rejection which feeds aggression… Rejected-withdrawn 10-25% of rejected kids Tend to be socially withdrawn, timid, and socially anxious Frequently victimized and feel lonely, isolated, depressed Vicious cycle: withdrawing leads to rejection which leads to more withdrawal… Controversial Kids 7% of kids Liked by many also disliked by many class-clowns, mean girls Characteristics of rejected-aggressive and popular kids Negative traits: Aggressive, disruptive, and prone to anger Compensate for this with many positive social skills: being cooperative, sociable, funny Neglected kids 9% of kids Don’t receive many nominations Not liked nor disliked Neutral/not noticed Less social and less disruptive than average children Are neglected kids at risk for negative outcomes? No Simply prefer solitary activities Can be socially skilled in more structured activities Average kids 60% of kids Moderate number of likes and dislikes More social than rejected and neglected kids but not as social as popular and controversial kids Short-term stability of sociometric status A ew weeks-a few months Neglected or controversial children are likely to change status Popular, rejected, and average children tend to remain so Long-term stability of sociometric status Years Sociometric status more likely to change Average and rejected status most stable Rejected kids are the most… Stable across short and long term Sociometric status is important because it modulates How much/if children get to benefit from friendship Importance of Friendship Provides social validation and support Fosters development of positive social skills Friendship is especially important during Transitions Kids tend to rely more on friends than parents starting in adolescence Chronic friendlessness is associated with increased… Loneliness and depression Friendship buffers against… negative experiences Study: 10-11 year olds reported on their negative experiences over the course of 4 days Tested how friends buffer against negative experiences After each experience, the kids indicate: Self-worth: how they felt about themselves after the experience Whether best friend was present or not while the negative thing happened Measured salivary cortisol as an indicator of stress reaction Results: If best friend was not present, more negative experiences associated with increased cortisol and lower self-worth But not if best friend was present I.E. Friendship buffers against negative experiences Friendship fosters development of positive social skills Builds cooperation, theory of mind, conflict resolution skills Gossip allows children to learn about social norms Childhood friendships are "practice" for adult relationships Does friendship shape early adult attachment? Yes Caregivers aren’t the only people who shape attachment, friends do too. Study: How does friendship quality shape early adult attachment Method: used data from SECCYD Longitudinal study of 707 participants from childhood to age 18 Assessed: Quality of caregiving experiences at age 15 months, 24 months, 36 months, 54 months and each year grade 1-6 Childs social competence assessed by parents and teachers each year grade 1-6. Self-reported best friendship quality in grade 3, 4, 5, 6 Attachment avoidance and anxiety at age 18 Results: Less supportive parenting, lower social competence and lower quality friendships across childhood predicted more adult attachment insecurity Avoidance at age 18 predicted by: Lower maternal sensitivity (-0.2) Higher material depression (0.14) Lower social competence in childhood (-0.39) Best friendship quality (-0.3) Anxiety at age 18 predicted by: Higher maternal depression (0.17) Lower social competence in childhood (-0.23) Best friendship quality (-0.15) Effect of social skills and friendship experiences on adult attachment is similar to (if not larger) to effect of caregiving experiences Study: friendship assessed at age 10 and then follow-up at age 22 Studied longitudinal benefits of childhood benefits. At age 10: kids who had a bestfriend (vs. those that didnt) were seen as: Less aggressive More popular/well-liked At age 22: those that had a bestfriend at age 10: Were more successful in university Had better family and social lives Had high self-esteem and less anxiety and depression Shows that having a close friendship in childhood has both short-term and long-term benefits for social and psychological well-being Implications of being rejected Rejected, esp aggressive-rejected, status in childhood is associated with a variety of negative outcomes More aggression Delinquency in teens Substance abuse Continued unhealthy relationships into adolescence and adulthood Low self esteem Less education and limited work success Crime in adulthood Deviancy training Falling in with the wrong crowd Negative peer pressure wherein peers model and reinforce aggression and deviance by making these behaviors seem acceptable Kids that have more aggressive/delinquent friends are more likely to also become more aggressive and delinquent themselves Similar effect with alcohol and drug use Can begin as early as age 5 Selection effect Choosing the wrong crowd Children choose peers that are similar to them Implies that kids choose and contribute to “the wrong crowd” Aggressive kids make aggressive friends Parents can shape their children’s peer relationships in a positive way using two strategies: Monitoring Emotion coaching Monitoring Parents decide whom children interact with and how much time they spend doing particular activities. Looks different depending on the age of the child but matters at all ages Emotion coaching Parents teach kids how to effectively manage emotions to interact with peers and handle conflict The more age-appropriate monitoring + coaching, the more kids are… socially competent and liked by peers School interventions Aim to improve children’s peer relationships by enhancing their emotional development Example of school intervention promoting alternative thinking strategies (PATHS) Aim to change how rejected children interact with peers PATHS: Kids ages 4-11 Learn: To identify emotional expressions Think about the causes and consequences of different ways of expressing emotions Strategies for self-regulation PATHS outcomes Children that participate in PATHS (vs. control) show: Improved emotion understanding and regulation Increased social problem-solving Decreased externalizing behavior (aggression, acting out) Decreased depression Friendship summary Children tend to have friends that are similar to them and in close proximity As children get older, they define friendship in different ways moving from defining friendship based on activities in early childhood to based on self disclosure in adolescence 5 sociometric status groups: popular, rejected, neglected, controversial, average Sociometric status is associated with different behavioural profiles Friendship is important for kids’ emotional and social development Friendship can be associated with negative outcomes through deviancy training and selection effects Parents’ monitoring and coaching and school interventions can help improve peer acceptance