Lecture 1 Introducing Semantics and Pragmatics 2023-2024 PDF

ΓΛ2-210 Semantics and Pragmatics Thanasis Georgakopoulos Winter semester 2023-2024 Lecture 1 Introducing Semantics and Pragmatics 04 October 2024 Slides https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fo/fi4xjzummrfz2 u9jdn2k7/AIgXAb1Neprl7xoOxNyHvYA?rlkey=zd 6slljj25x1vsml...

ΓΛ2-210 Semantics and Pragmatics Thanasis Georgakopoulos Winter semester 2023-2024 Lecture 1 Introducing Semantics and Pragmatics 04 October 2024 Slides https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fo/fi4xjzummrfz2 u9jdn2k7/AIgXAb1Neprl7xoOxNyHvYA?rlkey=zd 6slljj25x1vsmlq3tbv1rg7&st=65b8pl0f&dl=0 https://shorturl.at/NrRoT 2 About me Thanasis Georgakopoulos Website: https://thanasis-georgakopoulos.weebly.com/ Office: 306A Office hours: Tuesday, 11:00–13:00 Friday, 13:30–15:30 Onsite/online by appointment only. Email: [email protected] 3 Lectures Winter semester: 13 lectures (Friday, 11:00) Lecture slides available on Elearning Assessment methods: Written exam There will be a few optional assignments during the semester (not part of your evaluation) 4  Practical information The main textbook to be used for reading and assessment Saeed, I. John. 2003 [or 2009 or 2015] Semantics. Oxford: Blackwell. Additional references will be supplied in the individual classes and some will be available on the module’s Elearning site. 5 Syllabus 6 Introductory remarks 7  Levels of language Language: a ‘whole’ that linguists, for their own convenience, are forced to break up into ‘levels’ of structural organization → to be able to analyze it and study it. Phonetics What it is: The general study of the characteristics of speech sounds Explanation in plain terms: It focuses on how speech sounds are produced (by the vocal organs), transmitted, and heard. It’s about the actual sounds we make, regardless of what language we speak. Example: The sounds [b] and [p] are produced by closing the lips Phonetics studies these physical [b] is voiced (your vocal cords vibrate) details of sound production. [p] is voiceless (no vocal cord vibration). Phonology What it is: The study of what sounds a language has and how these sounds combine to form words Example: pterodactyl or Ptolemy → English speakers normally do not pronounce the /p/ because /pt/ is not a sound combination at the start of a word Morphology What it is: The study of the internal structure of words Example: How many parts are there in the word unhappiness? un + happy + ness Morphological knowledge: You can both produce and You know which combinations comprehend newly composed are words and which are not words that you haven’t heard Nicely vs. *bookly before ungiraffelike Syntax What it is: The study of how words combine to form sentences. Knowledge of Syntax You produce and understand sentences which are well-formed (1) a. I will pick the letter up at five o’clock. b. *letter up pick at o’clock will the five I. c. *I will picks the letter up at five o’clock. Semantics What it is: Semantics focuses on what words and sentences actually mean 1a. Jack swims. 1b. *Swims metaphorical every. 2a. flick 3a. sofa 4a. alive 2b.*blick 3b. couch 4b. dead Pragmatics What it its: The study of what speakers mean, or “speaker meaning,” E.g., “I will find you” → A threat? A promise Your ability to use context in order to interpret an utterance’s meaning is part of your knowledge of pragmatics Introducing semantics “Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences” Focus: on what the words conventionally mean (Yule 2010: 112) “Semantics is the study of meaning communicated through language” (Saeed 2009: 3) 15 Introducing semantics 1. The lamp is above the table. 2. The table is below the lamp. 16 Introducing semantics a) Athens is the capital of Greece b) Athens is not the capital of Greece Contradiction c) The house is on fire. d) The house is not on fire. 17 Introducing semantics a) The anarchist assassinated the emperor. Entailment b) The emperor died. If a sentence A entails a sentence B, then if we know A we automatically know B. 18 Puzzle Are the following statements entailments or not? (1) If X kills Y, then Y dies. (2) If X assassinates Y, then Y dies. (3) If X shoots Y, then Y dies. If a sentence A entails a sentence B, then if we know A we automatically know B. 19 Puzzle Are the following statements entailments or not? (1) If X kills Y, then Y dies. entailment (2) If X assassinates Y, then Y dies. entailment (3) If X shoots Y, then Y dies. No entailment If a sentence A entails a sentence B, then if we know A we automatically know B. 20 Task For each pair of sentences below, indicate whether the a sentence entails the b sentence. i. a. Peter is always complaining. b. Peter is often complaining. ii. a. It’s raining. b. It’s cold. iii. a. All birds should be protected by the law. b. All puffins should be protected by the law. iv. a. Henry and Jane are married. b. Henry and Jane are married to each other. 21 Task For each pair of sentences below, indicate whether the a sentence entails the b sentence. i. a. Peter is always complaining. YES b. Peter is often complaining. ii. a. It’s raining. b. It’s cold. NO iii. a. All birds should be protected by the law. YES b. All puffins should be protected by the law. iv. a. Henry and Jane are married. NO b. Henry and Jane are married to each other. 22 Some Important Assumptions/ Topics/Terms 23 Sense and reference 24 Sense vs. Reference Sense: The general meaning or the concept underlying the word What we usually think of as contained in a dictionary entry for the word in question Dictionary entry of the word Queen: Sense1: “female reigning monarch” Sense2: “second highest ranking piece in a game of chess” Sense3: “…” 25  Sense vs. Reference Referent: The thing in the world that is meant by a word It changes each time the word is applied to a different object or situation in the world Example (1) The queen has fallen off the table Scenario A Scenario B A rowdy evening at Buckingham Palace in 2009: ReferentQUEEN: Queen Margrethe of Denmark ReferentQUEEN: Her Majesty, Elizabeth II ReferentTABLE: the Danish piece of ReferentTABLE: a particular piece of English furniture royal furniture. 26  Sense vs. Reference Regardless of whether the referent of queen is Elizabeth II or Margrethe, its sense is ‘female reigning monarch’ Example (1) The queen has fallen off the table Scenario A Scenario B A rowdy evening at Buckingham Palace in 2009: ReferentQUEEN: Queen Margrethe of Denmark ReferentQUEEN: Her Majesty, Elizabeth II ReferentTABLE: the Danish piece of ReferentTABLE: a particular piece of English furniture royal furniture. 27  Expressions may differ in sense, but have the Sense vs. Reference same reference; (2) The Morning Star is the same as the Evening Star (Frege 1892) Sense ‘star visible in the morning’ Same reference: The refer to the same planet (Venus) Sense ‘star visible in the evening’ 28 Sense and Reference What would be the referent of the phrase the President of the United States used in a conversation about: (a) United States politics in 2018? (b) United States politics in 2022? 29 Sense and Reference What would be the referent of the phrase the President of the United States used in a conversation about: (a) United States politics in 2018? (b) United States politics in 2022? The reference of an expression varies according to: the circumstances (time, place, etc.) in which the expression is used; the topic of the conversation in which the expression is used. 30  The SENSE of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language Sense and Reference Sense: we deal with relationships inside the language E.g., Sameness of meaning 31 Sense and Reference Rule: Every expression that has meaning has sense, but not every expression has reference. Do the following words refer to things in the world? (1) almost Yes / No (2) probable Yes / No (3) and Yes / No (4) if Yes / No (5) above Yes / No 32  Sense and Reference (1) When you look up the meaning of a word in a dictionary, what do you find there, its referent, or an expression with the same sense? (2) Is a dictionary full of words or full of things, like a box or a sack? (3) Could a foreigner learn the meanings of her very first words of English by having their typical referents pointed out to her? Yes / No (4) Could a foreigner learn the meanings of her very first words of English by looking them up in an English dictionary? Yes / No 33  Sense and Reference (1) When you look up the meaning of a word in a dictionary, what do you find there, its referent, or an expression with the same sense? (2) Is a dictionary full of words or full of things, like a box or a sack? (3) Could a foreigner learn the meanings of her very first words of English by having their typical referents pointed out to her? Yes / No (4) Could a foreigner learn the meanings of her very first words of English by looking them up in an English dictionary? Yes / No 34 Utterances, sentences and propositions 35 Utterances, sentences and propositions Most abstract Proposition Sentence Utterance Least abstract 36 Utterances, sentences and propositions A specific instance of Most abstract speech or writing, Proposition produced by a speaker or writer at a particular time and place Sentence Utterance The pairing of a sentence and a context Least abstract Created by speaking a piece of language 37 Utterances, sentences and propositions Most abstract Proposition Sentence Utterance ‘Christian Bale is great in Batman’ ‘Caesar invaded Gaul’ Least abstract ‘Hello!’ ‘An espresso please’ 38 Utterances, sentences and propositions Sentences exist Most abstract independently of any Proposition particular context of use Sentence Abstract grammatical elements obtained from utterances Utterance Least abstract 39 Utterances, sentences and propositions Most abstract Proposition Sentence Caesar invaded Gaul Utterance Least abstract 40 Utterances, sentences and propositions A well-formed string of words put together Proposition according to the grammatical rules of a language. Sentence a. The lamp is above the table. Utterance b. *the lamp table above is the 41 Exercise (1) Do all (authentic) performances of Macbeth begin by using the same sentence? Yes / No (2) Do all (authentic) performances of Macbeth begin with the same utterance? Yes / No (3) Does it make sense to talk of the time and place of a sentence? Yes / No (4) Does it make sense to talk of the time and place of an utterance? Yes / No (5) Can one talk of a loud sentence? Yes / No (6) Can one talk of a slow utterance? Yes / No 42 Exercise (1) Do all (authentic) performances of Macbeth begin by using the same sentence? Yes / No (2) Do all (authentic) performances of Macbeth begin with the same utterance? Yes / No (3) Does it make sense to talk of the time and place of a sentence? Yes / No (4) Does it make sense to talk of the time and place of an utterance? Yes / No (5) Can one talk of a loud sentence? Yes / No (6) Can one talk of a slow utterance? Yes / No 43 Exercise (1) Do all (authentic) performances of Macbeth begin by using the same sentence? Yes / No (2) Do all (authentic) performances of Macbeth begin with the same utterance? Yes / No (3) Does it make sense to talk of the time and place of a sentence? Yes / No (4) Does it make sense to talk of the time and place of an utterance? Yes / No (5) Can one talk of a loud sentence? Yes / No (6) Can one talk of a slow utterance? Yes / No 44 Exercise (1) Do all (authentic) performances of Macbeth begin by using the same sentence? Yes / No (2) Do all (authentic) performances of Macbeth begin with the same utterance? Yes / No (3) Does it make sense to talk of the time and place of a sentence? Yes / No (4) Does it make sense to talk of the time and place of an utterance? Yes / No (5) Can one talk of a loud sentence? Yes / No (6) Can one talk of a slow utterance? Yes / No 45 Exercise (1) Do all (authentic) performances of Macbeth begin by using the same sentence? Yes / No (2) Do all (authentic) performances of Macbeth begin with the same utterance? Yes / No (3) Does it make sense to talk of the time and place of a sentence? Yes / No (4) Does it make sense to talk of the time and place of an utterance? Yes / No (5) Can one talk of a loud sentence? Yes / No (6) Can one talk of a slow utterance? Yes / No 46 Exercise (1) Do all (authentic) performances of Macbeth begin by using the same sentence? Yes / No (2) Do all (authentic) performances of Macbeth begin with the same utterance? Yes / No (3) Does it make sense to talk of the time and place of a sentence? Yes / No (4) Does it make sense to talk of the time and place of an utterance? Yes / No (5) Can one talk of a loud sentence? Yes / No (6) Can one talk of a slow utterance? Yes / No 47 Exercise (1) Do all (authentic) performances of Macbeth begin by using the same sentence? Yes / No (2) Do all (authentic) performances of Macbeth begin with the same utterance? Yes / No (3) Does it make sense to talk of the time and place of a sentence? Yes / No (4) Does it make sense to talk of the time and place of an utterance? Yes / No (5) Can one talk of a loud sentence? Yes / No (6) Can one talk of a slow utterance? Yes / No 48  Utterances, sentences and propositions What is expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is Most abstract used to make a statement, that is, Proposition to say something, true or false, about some state of affairs in the external world. (Huang 2015: 14) Sentence Propositions are abstract and deal with the Utterance meaning of a sentence, not the words or Least abstract structure used. 49  Utterances, sentences and propositions Caesar invaded Gaul. Gaul was invaded by Caesar. Most abstract It was Gaul that Caesar invaded. Proposition It was Caesar that invaded Gaul. Sentence Utterance Least abstract 50  Utterances, sentences and propositions Caesar invaded Gaul. Gaul was invaded by Caesar. Most abstract It was Gaul that Caesar invaded. Proposition It was Caesar that invaded Gaul. Proposition: CAESAR INVADED GAUL. Sentence Utterance Least abstract 51  Utterances, sentences and propositions Caesar invaded Gaul. Gaul was invaded by Caesar. Most abstract It was Gaul that Caesar invaded. Proposition It was Caesar that invaded Gaul. Proposition: CAESAR INVADED GAUL. Sentence The SAME PROPOSITION (abstract idea) can be expressed by DIFFERENT SENTENCES. Utterance Least abstract 52 Utterances, sentences and propositions Most abstract Proposition Sentence Utterance Least abstract 53 Exercise What is the propositional content of the following sentences? (i) The shopkeeper had reduced the prices. (ii) The prices had been reduced by the shopkeeper. (iii) It was the shopkeeper who had reduced the prices. (iv) It was the prices that the shopkeeper had reduced. (v) If only the prices had been reduced by the shopkeeper! 54 Exercise What is the propositional content of the following sentences? (i) The shopkeeper had reduced the prices. (ii) The prices had been reduced by the shopkeeper. (iii) It was the shopkeeper who had reduced the prices. (iv) It was the prices that the shopkeeper had reduced. (v) If only the prices had been reduced by the shopkeeper! THE SHOPKEEPER HAD REDUCED THE PRICES 55 Utterances, sentences and propositions What the speaker means on a particular occasion is not exhausted by the proposition s/he is taken to have expressed: A: Is there any shopping to do? B: We’ll be away for most of the weekend. We’ll be away for most of the weekend We won’t need food 56 Literal and non-literal meaning 57 Literal and non-literal meaning Traditional position (1) Literality: stable and unambiguous notion (2) There is a sharp distinction between i. literal language, ii. and non-literal or figurative language. I’m hungry. Literal I could eat a horse. Non- literal 58 Literal and non-literal meaning Traditional position (1) Literality: stable and unambiguous notion (2) There is a sharp distinction between i. literal language, ii. and non-literal or figurative language. Literal language: precise and lucid Figurative language: imprecise, the domain of poets and novelists. 59 Literal and non-literal meaning Traditional position Literal language: the conventional ‘ordinary’ or ‘everyday’ way we have of talking about things Figurative language: ‘exotic’ or ‘literary’ Can the distinction between literal and non-literal meaning be BUT consider the following examples: maintained? (a) Things are going smoothly in the operating theatre. (b) He was in a state of shock after the election result. (c) The economy is going from bad to worse. (Examples from Evans & Green 2006: 289-290) 60 Literal and non-literal meaning (a) Things are going smoothly in the operating theatre. (b) He was in a state of shock after the election result. (c) The economy is going from bad to worse. These expressions represent conventional means of talking about events, states and changes 61 Literal and non-literal meaning (d) Christmas is approaching. (e) We’re moving towards Christmas. (f) Christmas is not very far away. These expressions represent conventional means of talking about time 62 Literal and non-literal meaning Source Target Metaphor allows people to understand one thing as another without thinking the two are objectively the same 63 Literal and non-literal meaning Space Time (d) Christmas is approaching. (e) We’re moving towards Christmas. (f) Christmas is not very far away. 64 Reading For this week’s topic: Saeed: Chapter 1 “Semantics in Linguistics” 65