Linguistics: Language Theories and Origins

Linguistics Linguistics and language 1 linguistics ; the study of language 2 language; Communication of thoughts and feelings through a system of arbitrary signals, such as voice sounds, gestures, or written symbols 3 experts own definitions of language 1 1. Sapir (1921): “Language is a p...

Linguistics Linguistics and language 1 linguistics ; the study of language 2 language; Communication of thoughts and feelings through a system of arbitrary signals, such as voice sounds, gestures, or written symbols 3 experts own definitions of language 1 1. Sapir (1921): “Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions, and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols.” 2 David Crystal (1989): human vocal noise used systematically and conventionally by a community for purposes of communication.” 3 Robbins (1990): “Language is a form of communication by means of a system of symbols What do we study in linguistics? Subsystems of language 1- Phonetics 2- Phonology 3- Morphology 4- Syntax 5- Semantics 6- Pragmatics The definitions of Subsystems of language  Linguistics 1Phonetics ; the scientific study of speech sounds 2 Phonology ; the study of sound patterns; how speech sounds function in a language 3 Morphology ; the study of the formation of words 4 Syntax deals with the combination of words into phrases, clauses and sentences 5 Semantics; the study of meaning in all its formal aspects[Lexical relations; Antonyms ,synonyms] 6 Pragmatics; the study of language in use The origins of language 1 first spoken language developed between 100,000 and 50,000 years ago 2 first written language developed about 5,000 years ago 3 Perhaps because of this absence of direct physical evidence, there has been no shortage of speculation about the origins of human speech Theories of the origin of language 1- The divine source theory 2- The natural source theory 3- The social interaction source theory 4- The physical adaptation source theory 5- The tool-making source theory 6- The genetic source theory  Linguistics Explaining theories in details 1 The divine source theory 1In the bible God created Adam and “whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that was the name thereof.” 2 in Hindu tradition language came from Sarasvati, wife of Brahma, creator of the universe. The basic hypothesis is if humans infants grew up without hearing any language they will eventually speak god original language Experiments on Divine source 2- The natural source theory  Linguistics The bow wow theory The criticism of the bow wow theory 1 how soundless things will be referred to depending on this theory 2 the language is more than names!  Linguistics Onomatopoeia The pooh pooh theory This theory claims that Speech developed from the instinctive sounds that people make in emotional circumstances like 1 ouch 2 ahh 3 ooh 4 Phew The criticism of the pooh pooh theory  Linguistics 1 these are produced with sudden intakes of breath , which is not the case of ordinary speech 2 emotional reacts contains sounds not otherwise used in speech production The natural source theory Ye he ho theory ; the idea is that the sounds of the person involved in physical effort could be the source of our language. The Criticism of the social interaction source theory  Linguistics 1 apes and other primates also live in groups and use grunts etc and they didn’t develop a capacity for speech ! Physical adaptation source theory Humans having the perfect shaped speech organs is a good clue for their capacity for speec h Linguistics  Linguistics Larynx Pharynx  Linguistics The Criticism Physical adaptation source theory 1 ; certain birds and parrots are able to also produce a wide variety of sounds Tool making source theory  Linguistics Brain lateralization Left hemisphere specialization 1 analytic 2 tool using 3 language Right hemisphere specialization  Linguistics 1 holistic 2 music 3 visuo spatial skills Genetic source theory Explanation We can think of the human baby in its first few years as a living example of some of these physical changes taking place. At birth, the baby’s brain is only a quarter of its eventual weight and the larynx is much higher in the throat, allowing babies, like chimpanzees, to breathe and drink at the same time. In a relatively short period of time, the larynx descends, the brain develops, the child assumes an upright posture and starts walking and talking. This almost automatic set of developments and the complexity of the young child’s language have led some scholars to look for something more powerful  Linguistics than small physical adaptations of the species over time as the source of language. Even children who are born deaf (and do not develop speech) become fluent sign language users, given appropriate circumstances, very early in life. This seems to indicate that human offspring are born with a special capacity for language. It is innate, no other creature seems to have it, and it isn’t tied to a specific variety of language. Is it possible that this language capacity is genetically hard-wired in the newborn human? Innateness hypothesis if genetic source theory 1 something in humans genetics makes human language possible  Linguistics Animals and human language  Linguistics  Is it possible that a creature could learn to communicate with humans using language?  Does human language have properties that make it so unique that it cannot be learned by any other creature? To answer these questions, we first look at some special properties of human language, then review a number of experiments in communication involving humans and animals Communicative vs. Informative Signals  Communicative Signals: Intentional messages. A behavior used intentionally to provide information.  Example: When you say, “I’m one of the applicants for the vacant position of English teacher”. Example: Saying, "I need help with this assignment." Informative Signals: Unintentional information revealed. A behavior that provides information, usually unintentionally. Example: Sneezing indicates you might have a cold  Linguistics Example of Animal Communication:  The blackbird is not intentionally communicating when it has black feathers, sits on a branch and looks down at the ground but sends a communicative signal with loud squawking when a cat appears, warning others.  So, when we talk about distinctions between human language and animal communication, we are considering both in terms of their potential as a means of intentional communication. Unique Properties of Human Language 1.Displacement 2.Arbitrariness 3.Productivity (Creativity)  Linguistics 4.Cultural Transmission 5.Duality (Double Articulation) 1. Displacement Humans can discuss past, present, and future events. They can also refer to other locations. Example: "I saw a movie yesterday and plan to watch another tomorrow." 2 Arbitrariness No natural link between words and meanings. Example: The word "dog" doesn’t physically resemble a dog  Exception: Onomatopoeic words like "buzz" or "crash." (of a word) sounding similar to the noise the word refers to Productivity  Linguistics Humans create infinite sentences  Animal Contrast: Limited vocalizations (e.g., vervet monkeys have 36 calls). Cultural Transmission  We acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes Language is learned culturally, not inherited genetically. Animal Contrast: Kittens meow regardless of upbringing Duality (Double Articulation  Language operates at two levels: 1. Sounds: "b," “I," "n." 2. Meaningful Words: "bin," "nib."  Animal Contrast:  Dogs’ "woof" /wʊf/ can’t be broken into smaller meaningful units.  If the dog was operating with the double level (i.e. duality), then we might expect to hear different  Linguistics combinations with different meanings, such as uwf (“I’m hungry”) and fuw (“I’m really bored”). Talking to animals Riders can say “Whoa” to horses and they stop (or so it seems), we can say “Heel” to dogs and they will follow at heel (well, sometimes), and a variety of circus animals go Up, Down and Roll over in response to spoken commands. Should we treat these examples as evidence that non-humans can understand human language? The standard explanation is that the animal produces a particular behavior in response to a particular sound-stimulus or noise, but does not actually “understand” what the words in the noise mean. If it seems difficult to conceive of animals understanding human language, then it appears to be even less likely that an animal would be capable of producing human language.  Linguistics After all, we do not generally observe animals of one species learning to produce the signals of another species. You could keep your horse in a field of cows for years, but it still won’t say moo. And, in some homes, a new baby and a puppy may arrive at the same time. Baby and puppy grow up in the same environment, hearing mostly the same things, but about two years later, the baby is making lots of human speech sounds and the puppy is not Chimpanzees and language The chimpanzees the experiments gua 1. In the 1930s, scientists Luella and Winthrop Kellogg raised an infant chimpanzee, Gua, alongside their baby son. Gua could understand around 100 words by 16 months but was unable to produce any of them. Viki  Linguistics 2. In the 1940s, scientists Catherine and Keith Hayes raised a chimpanzee named Viki as if she were a human child. After five years of effort, Viki could say poorly articulated versions of a few words: mama, papa, and cup. Washoe  Beatrix and Allen Gardner aimed to teach a female chimpanzee named Washoe to use American Sign Language (ASL) instead of spoken language.  Washoe was raised in a human-like, comfortable environment where only sign language was used around her.  Over 3.5 years, Washoe learned to use more than 100 signs, including words like airplane, baby, banana, window, woman, and you. She combined signs into simple two-word sentences and held basic conversations in the form of question–answer sequences Koko  Francine Patterson later worked with a gorilla named Koko, who also learned to use over 100 signs and create simple sentences. Sarah  Linguistics Here’s a simple summary in bullet points:  Sara, a chimpanzee, was taught by Ann and David Premack to use plastic shapes as "words" to communicate.  The shapes represented objects or actions and were arranged vertically to form "sentences."  Sara was trained in a cage using food rewards to associate shapes with meanings.  She learned to use many shapes, such as selecting a blue triangle to request an apple.  Sara could form sentences like "Mary give chocolate Sarah."  She understood complex structures, e.g., "If Sara put red on green, Mary give Sarah chocolate." Lana  Duane Rumbaugh trained a chimpanzee named Lana using an artificial language called Yerkish.  Yerkish used symbols displayed on a large keyboard connected to a computer.  Lana learned to press symbols in the correct order to form messages.  For example, to request water, she would press four symbols: "please machine give water." Nim  Linguistics  Psychologist Herbert Terrace, based on his work with Nim, argued that chimpanzees produce signs in response to human prompts and imitate signs, but they are not truly engaging in conversation.  Nim lived in a windowless cell and worked with various research assistants, many of whom were not fluent in American Sign Language.  Nim produced his first sign at 4 months old and learned 125 signs by age 4 but stayed at the two-word stage and couldn’t produce longer utterances.  Nim never initiated conversations with his research assistants.  Terrace concluded that chimpanzees display learned behavior (like signing or symbol selection) to obtain rewards, rather than genuine linguistic ability. Washoe Vs Nim In complex experiments, designed to eliminate any possible provision of cues by humans, they showed that in the absence of any human, Washoe could produce correct signs to identify objects in pictures. They also emphasize a major difference between the experiences of Washoe and Nim. While Nim was kept in a windowless cell as a research animal and had to deal with a lot of different research assistants who were often not fluent in American Sign Language, Washoe lived in a domestic environment with a lot of opportunity for imaginative play and interaction with fluent signers who were also using sign language with each  Linguistics other. They also report that another group of younger chimpanzees not only learned sign language, but also occasionally used signs with each other and with Washoe, even when there were no humans present. Matata (8) & Kanzi (9)  Training Background: Sue Savage-Rumbaugh was training a bonobo, Matata, in the Yerkish symbol system. Matata did not excel, but her adopted baby, Kanzi, observed these sessions.  Learning by Observation: Kanzi spontaneously began using the symbols without direct teaching, demonstrating the power of exposure at an early age.  Symbol Vocabulary: Kanzi developed a vocabulary of over 250 symbols.  Understanding English: By age eight, Kanzi's comprehension of spoken English was likened to that of a two-and-a-half-year-old human child.  Unique Communication: Kanzi used specific “gentle noises” to refer to items like bananas, grapes, and juice.  Expressing Preferences: He used the symbol system to communicate requests, such as asking to watch his favorite movies.  Linguistics Conclusion Animals do not have a sound system and speech organs like the ones that humans have, and human language is unique in its kind because of its cognitive and nervous connections to the brain and nervous system. Phonetics Phonetics; The general study of the characteristics of speech sounds The 3 Types of Phonetics 1 Articulatory Phonetics 2 Acoustic Phonetics 3 Auditory Phonetics  Linguistics International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). alphabetical system to describe the sounds the characteristics of IPA 1- One sound for each symbol 2- Universality -3 Special symbols for stress and intonation Types of sound 1 consonant 2 vowels The criteria of describing the consonant 1 voicing 2 place of articulation 3 manner of articulation  Linguistics Types of sounds and the criteria for describing consonants and vowels *The voiced consonants are called lenis * the voiceless consonants are called fortis Places of articulation for consonants 1- Bilabial  Linguistics 2- Labiodentals  Linguistics 3- Dentals  Linguistics 4- Alveolars  Linguistics 5- Palatals [ ʃ ] as in sheep/brush ‫شمس‬ [tʃ] as in church/ chase ‫تشلب‬ [ʒ] as in pleasure/ treasure ‫جامعة‬ [dʒ] as in ɡem/judɡe/joke  Linguistics 7- Glottals  Linguistics Manner of articulation for consonants In place of articulation, we described consonant sounds in terms of where they are articulated. In manner of articulation, we describe the same sounds in terms of how they are articulated. How many manners of articulation are explained in the unit?  Linguistics Manner of articulation 1. Stops/ plosives p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [ɡ] [ʔ] stopping” of the air stream (very briefly) then letting it go abruptly 2. Fricatives sounds [f], [v], [θ], [ð], [s], [z],[ʃ], [ʒ] involves almost blocking the air stream and having the air push through the very narrow opening 3. Affricates you combine a brief stopping of the air stream with an obstructed release which causes some friction, you will be able to produce the sounds [ʧ] and [ʤ]. 3. Nasals 4. when the velum is lowered and the air stream is allowed to flo w out through the nose to  Linguistics produce [m], [n] and [ ŋ], 5. Liquids A liquid is a consonant produced by allowing the airstream to flow over the sides of the tongue [r] [l] 6. Glides The sounds [w] and [j] are produced with very little constriction of the air flow (‫)تكاد تكون إعاقة تيار الهواء معدومة‬ so they are sometimes called semi-vowels Types of vowels  Linguistics mono means one Di means two A monophthong is made of one vowel like ‘[i:], [u:] [a:] etc.’ Diphthongs: di means two so a diphthong is made of two vowels. In a diphthong, we move from one vowel sound to another. An example of a dipthong is : [aʊ]. We have this vowel in the w]ord ‘house’. When we want to pronounce [aʊ] we start first by [a] and then shift to [ʊ]. Describing vowels (Monophthongs) In the classification of vowels, tongue position and jaw height are the main dimensions. The characteristics of a vowel sound is determined by the 1- horizontal tongue position (front-central-back) ‫جزء اللسان الذي يقترب من سقف الحلق عند النطق‬ 2- vertical tongue position (high-mid-low) or the distance between the tongue and the roof of the mouth (close-mid-open) ‫ارتفاع اللسان او انخفاضه بالنسبة لسقف الحلق‬  Linguistics 3- lip position (rounded-neutral-spread) ‫ محايد او منفرج‬،‫ مستدير‬: ‫وضع الشفتين‬ 4- typical length of the vowel (long-short) ‫طول الصائت او قصره‬ Describing English Vowels [i:] front high long unrounded  Linguistics [ɪ] front high short unrounded [e] front mid short unrounded [æ] front low short unrounded [u:] back high long rounded [ʊ] back high short rounded [ɔ:] back mid long rounded [ɒ] back low short rounded [ɑ:] back low long unrounded [ɜ:] central mid long unrounded  Linguistics [ʌ] central low short unrounded [ə] central mid short unrounded